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CH 51-53 (Aquatic Biomes (Zonation in aquatic biomes (Turnover: semiannual…

- - - - Benthos: community of organisms that survive in this region
      - Sand/organic/inorganic
      - Detritus: dead organic matter that’s a motor food source for benthic species
        
        Comes from photic zone
    - - Sends oxygenated water form the surface to the bottom
      - Sends nutrient rich water from the bottom to the surface
      - Spring and fall mix temp
      - Winter and summer separate warm and cold areas
    - - Degree of light penetration
      - Distance from shore
      - Found in open water or near the bottom
  - - - Light decreases with depth
      - Temperate lakes have seasonal thermocline
      - Tropical lowland lakes have thermocline year around
    - - Oligotrophic: nutrient poor and oxygen rich/ low of decomposable matter
      - Eutrophic: nutrient rich and oxygen depleted/ high of decomposed matter
    - - Littoral zone: shallow well lit waters close to shore
      - Limnetic zone: far from shore where its to deep to support rooted plants, there are phytoplankton/Cyanobacteria
    - - Limnetic zone: zooplankton/phytoplankton
      - benthic zone:invertebrates
      - Fish all over zones
  - - - Low in dissolved O2 from the high organic production of plants/ microorganism decomposition
      - High capacity to filter dissolved nutrients and chemicals
    - - Basin wetlands: shallow basins
      - Riverine wetlands: dev along shallows and flooded banks and rivers
      - Fringe wetlands: occurs along coast of lakes (freshwater+marine)
    - - Great water saturated soils: pond lilies, black spruces
      - Periodically anaerobic
      - woody plants= swamps
      - Bogs=sphagnum
    - - Invertebrate/bird
      - Herbivores: crustaceans/aquatic insects
      - Carnivore; alligators, dragonflies,frogs
  - - - Headwater streams: cold/clear/trubulant
      - Downstream: near river water is warmer and calmer
    - - Increases from headwater down to the mouth
      - Downstream also has high O2
    - - Headwater stream: narrow/rocky bottom/shallow and deep
      - Downstream: widen up
      - River bottoms: slity from sediment deposit
  - - - Seas water flows up during rising tide and down during falling tide
      - High density water bottom/ lower density at surface= mix when meet
    - - Worms/crustaceans/ crabs/marine invertebrates (breed/migrate upstrem)
      - Feeding for werewolves and marine mammals
  - - - Submerged and exposed by tides 2xs a day
      - Upper zones: lower air exposer has variation in temp and salinity
      - Major temp change form high to low inhibit animal distribution
    - - Echinoderms/fish
      - Worms/crustaceans
      - Organisms have structures that help them attach/burrow into sand depending on environment
  - - - Large realm of open water
      - Wind/ocean current driven
      - Greater photic zone
    - - High O2 levels/lower nutrient levels
        
        Spring/fall turnover renew nu
    - - Zooplankton
      - Inveterate/fishes
      - Squid/sea turtle/marine mammals
  - - - Formed from calcium carbonate
      - Photic zone
      - Edged of continents
      - 18-30 degrees Celsius
      - Deep sea 200-1500m
    - - Require solid substrate attachment
      - Fringing reef->barrier reef->coral atoll
  - - - Sea floor
      - Dark/cold
      - Pressure increases as you go down
- - - - choosing among potential mates
      - competing for mates
      - seeking & attracting mates
      - caring for offspring
    - - needs of young help evolve mating systems
      - monogamous: young cant feed themselves so its logical to have relationship(birds)
      - polygyny: males have more mates when young can vend for themselves
      - certainty of paternity (CP): degree to which a parent can be certain that he/she is parent of offspring
        
        internal fertilization (low CP)
        
        females: 100% theirs
        
        males: no male is 100% sure/ parental care is low
        
        some males engage in behaviors that increase their CP
        
        guarding females
        
        removing sperm
        
        introducing more of their sperm
        
        Egg laying and mating occur together(high CP)
        
        external fertilization
        
        aquatic vertebrate; male take care of young
        
        parental care occurs fewer than 10% of species with internal fertilization
        
        parental care occurs mainly in species who have external fertilization
        
        parental behavior is correlated with CP because it has been reinforced over generations by natural selection
      - polyandry: one female has multiple males
  - - - healthier male=healthier offspring (survive to reproduce)
      - mate-choice coping: individuals in a population copy the mate choice of others
      - evolved male behavior/anatomy
    - - lowers variation in males
      - agnostic behaviors: often ritualized contest that determines who gets territory/mate
- - - - Temperature
      - Sunlight
      - Wind
      - Precipitation
  - - - Solar energy
      - Earths space moment
    - - Warms up land/water/atmosphere
      - establishes temperature
      - Moves air and water
    - - Latitudinal variation in sunlight intensity
        
        Curved shape= latitudinal variation in sunlight intensity
        
        Tropics: gets direct strike of sunlight= more heat/light per unit of surface area
        
        Between 25 degrees north and 25 degrees south
        
        Sunlight si diffused in the north and south poles which are each at 90 degrees
      - Global air circulation and precipitation patterns
        
        Intense solar radiation begins circulation/precipitation cycles
        
        Warm evaporated air rises
        
        Rising air expands and cools=precipitation
        
        Dry air in the atmosphere toward 30 degrees west and south collect air from land= desert
        
        Dry air goes towards poles and has a cold dry atmosphere
      - Global wind patterns
        
        Earth has a tilt on its axis that affects wind patterns
        
        Land near equator moves faster than poles and gets wind patterns from circulation and precipitation patterns= easterly/westerly winds
        
        Tropics; cooling trade wind E->W
        
        W->E in temperate zones(tropic of cancer and Tropic of Capricorn )
  - - - March equinox: equator faces sun directly
        
        Neither pole is more tilted toward the sun
        
        All regions have a 12 hours day and night cycle
      - December solstice:
        
        North hemisphere tilts away from the sun and has shortest day and night
        
        South hemisphere tilts toward the sun and has longer days and shorter nights
      - September Equinox: equator faces sun directly
        
        All regions have a 12 hour day and night cycle
        
        Neither pole is more tilted toward the sun
      - June Solstice:
        
        North Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun and has the longest day and shorter nights
        
        South Hemisphere tilted away from the sun has longest night and shorter days
      - Changing the suns angle
        
        Affects local environment
        
        Marked wet and dry seasons at 20 degrees
      - Seasonal changes in wind patterns
        
        Alter wind currents
        
        Brings cold water upward= nutrient rich phytoplankton growth stimulated
  - - - Water warmed at the equator flows toward the north and south poles
      - California current: produces a cool mist climate and flows southward around western North America= coniferous forest
      - Gulf steam: carries warm water from the equator to the North Atlantic
    - - Large body of water and mountain affect climate
      - Cool air from water flows inland moderating temperature near shore
      - Air encountering a mountain goes upward and cools down real easing water=precipitation
      - Less moistures in air as it goes down leeward side= little precipitation
        
        Rain shadows dessert biome
        
        Dry air
  - - - Physical differences influence the distribution of species
  - - - Shading that is casted can alter evaporation in the soil
      - Change wind patterns
      - Forest trees moderate climate below them and buffer organisms from harsh conditions
    - - Temperature
      - Light
      - Water
      - Nutrients
  - - - Temperatures keep increasing
      - Wind/precipitation are sifting
      - Extreme weather
    - - Continental glaciers covered North America and Eurasia at on point
      - Increasing temperatures moved them northward
      - Discovered fossilized pollen deposits
        
        Some moved North rapidly
        
        Some species were able to stay due to a more suitable environment
- - - - alter the future parent behavior to their offspring
    - - see influence in genetic and environments in humans
      - useful for studying disorders
      - comparing behaviors of identical twins who lived apart vs living together
  - - - environment influences behavior
      - capacity of learning depends on the organization of the nervous system
      - modification of behavior as result to specific experiences
      - Nature(genes)+Nurture(environment)= shapes learning behavior
    - - recognition=essential for survival
      - imprinting: establishment of long lasting behavioral response to something
      - Sensitive period: only time imprinting can occur in development
      - young offspring imprint on their parent and learn basic behaviors
      - No bond= offspring will die
      - foster parenting
        
        some species identify the 1st object they see
        
        important for endangered species
        
        foster parent cant give offspring a strong enough attachment to get a mate
    - - Spatial Variation:
        
        nest sight
        
        hazards
        
        food
        
        mates
      - Spatial Learning: establishment of a memory that reflects environmental spatial patterns
        
        some species use landmarks to find habitats
        
        Tinbergens made the shortest hypotheses ever
        
        enhances fitness
      - Cognitive Map: representation in an animals nervous system of spatial relationships in surroundings
    - - learning=associations between experiences
      - ability to associate an environmental feature with another
      - well for lab study
      - classical conditioning: random stimulus becomes associated with a random one
        
        Ivan Pavlov:
        
        rang a bell= dog will always salivate when bell is heard anticipating food
      - Operant Conditioning: "Trial and Error", associated behavior with a reward/punishment and either repeats/avoids behavior
        
        B.F. Skinner:
        
        had a rat learn to get food by puling a lever down
      - organisms can link some features to environment
        
        pigeons can link danger with sound but not color but associate food with color
        
        development and organization of the nervous system can restrict certain connections to be formed
    - - cognition: most complex for of learning,process of knowing that involves awareness,reasoning, recollection and judgement
      - insects/primates/some marine animals
      - problem solving: info processing ability of a nervous system, cognitive ability to form a method to get from one state to another in the face of obstacles
        
        can be highly developed in some mammals
        
        Chimp stacking boxes to get a hanging banana
        
        can be throughout species and also vary per individual
    - - some can be quickly learned and some can be gradually
      - birds learn songs in stages
        
        genetically controlled preferences
        
        Birth->Juvenile->Adult
        
        starts off as sub-song and crystallizes
        
        spends its life time to craft song
    - - learning through the observations of others
      - modify behavior
        
        calls a specific towards predator
        
        start young, and practice to improve accuracy
        
        monkeys learn calls to alarm others
        
        learn from other monkeys which are the correct predators
      - culture: a system of information transfer through social learning; teaching tat influences behavior of individuals in a population
- - - - both
      - birth rate deceases
      - death rate increases
  - - - constant environment
      - rare predation and population
      - not common
- - - - How does behavior affect fitness/survival?
      - How did the behavior evolve?
      - What stimulates behavior and what physiological method supports behavior?
      - How does the behavior develop?
  - - - Males with red stomachs attack other males with red stomachs that invade territory
      - males get triggered by the color red even if it is a not a fish
      - sign stimulus: color red
    - - once its started it must be completed
      - unchangeable
  - - - some animals track their position by the suns location
        
        circadian clock: internal mechanism that keeps a 24 hr activity cycle
      - nocturnal animals use the Northern Star
      - If conditions are cloudy some animals will use the earths magnetic field
  - - - migration
      - reproduction
  - - - Chemical
      - Tactile
      - Visual
      - Auditory
    - - terrestrial mammals that are nocturnal have strong olfactory and auditory signals
      - Birds/Humans are diurnal organisms and have stronger visual/auditory signals
    - - bees returning back to hive communicate location of food source by wiggling its abdomen=wiggle dance
      - wiggle dance= is in a figure 8 shape
      - distance: number of wiggles in the straight run part of dance
      - direction: angle (in relation of vertical surface of hive) of straight run
      - "round": wiggle dance in tight circles meaning the nectar is close
      - sound and odors also give location
    - - animals communicate through odors and taste
      - mammal/insects
      - reproductive behavior
      - bees have complex social order based on the pheromones of Queen and daughters
      - alarms
      - effective at low concentrations
- - - - Tropical forest
      - Savanna
      - Desert
      - High mountain
      - Polar ice
  - - - Canopy: upper most layer of vegetation in a terrestrial biome
      - Lower tree layer under canopy
      - Next the shrub layer
      - Ground layer with hibiscus plants
      - Forest floor (litter layer)
      - Root layer
  - - - Grasslands/savanna, chaparral coniferous forest
  - - - Equatorial areas
      - Tropical rain forest: rain is relatively constant 200-400cm
      - Tropical dry forest: precipitation is seasonal(150-200cm)/has 6-7 month of dry season
      - Little seasonal variation 25-29 degrees Celsius
      - Plants
        
        Vertically layered
        
        High competition for sunlight
        
        Broadleaf/Epiphyte/orchids
      - Animals
        
        High diversity vs other biomes
        
        Arthropod/insects/amphibians/mammals
        
        Usually inconspicuous
      - Humans; affect the environment by tearing them down for their land use
    - - Occur near 30 degrees n/s latitude
      - Precipitation is low and seasonal less than 30 cm
      - Temperature
        
        Variable seasonally and daily
        
        Daily max: over 50 degrees Celsius
        
        Low: -30 degrees Celsius
    - - Found in equatorial and subequatorial regions
      - Has seasonal rainfall 30-50cm per year
      - Dry seasons are 8-9 months
      - Warm year around avg of 24-29 degrees Celsius/ seasonal variation
      - Plants
        
        Scattered trees that are thorny/small leaves and adapter to dry areas
        
        Fire adaptive plants in fire season and adaptive in drought
        
        Forbs: grasses and small nonwoody plants
      - Animals
        
        Herbivores
        
        Zebras/wildebeest
        
        Predators; lions/hyena
        
        Insects; termites
      - Humans; set fires to maintain/cattle ranches/over hunting=large mammal decline
    - - Found in middle latitude coastal regions
      - Name reflects far distribution
      - Precipitation is highly seasonal 30-50cm
        
        Rainy winter
        
        Dry summer
      - Temperature
        
        Cool:fall/winter/spring 10-12 degrees Celsius
        
        Summer: 30-40 degrees Celsius
      - Plant
        
        Small trees, and shrubs
        
        Grasses/herbs
        
        High plant diversity
        
        Adaptive to harsh environments
      - Animals
        
        Deer/goats
        
        Diversity of small mammals
        
        Amphibians/birds/reptiles
      - Humans; transformed into agriculture and urban areas/contribute to fires
    - - Found: central North America/pampas of Argentina and Uruguay/Seeps of Russia
      - Precipitation: high seasonal30-100cm
        
        Dry winters
        
        Wet summers
        
        Periodic drought
      - Temperature
        
        Winters: very cold avg: -10 degrees Celsius
        
        Hot avg 30 degrees Celsius
      - Plants
        
        Grasses /forbs
        
        Not many trees/shrubs
        
        Adaptive to harsh conditions
      - Animals
        
        Native Mammals: bison/horses
        
        Burring mammals; prairie dogs/
      - Human impact; growing grains/ some parts have been turned into deserts
    - - Located: across North America and Eurasia/ largest biome
      - Precipitation: 30-70cm
        
        Periodic drought
        
        Some parts may receive more than 300cm
      - Temperature
        
        Winters: cold -50
        
        Summer: hot 20 degree Celsius
      - Plants
        
        Cone bearing trees; conifers
        
        Low diversity of other shrubs/herbs
      - Animals
        
        Moose/Siberian tigers/brown bears
        
        Birds habitat in trees
      - Humans; logged
      - Humans: mineral and oil extraction
    - - Location: mid latitudinal in northern hemisphere
        
        Small areas; Chile,South Africa, Australia
      - Precipitation; 70-200 cm all year long
      - Temperature
        
        Winter: 0 degrees Celsius
        
        Summer: hot 35 degrees Celsius
      - Plants
        
        Vertical
        
        Closed canopy
        
        Shrub and a herb layer
        
        Dicidious trees
      - Animals
        
        Hibernate in the winter
        
        Birds migrate
      - Humans; logging/land clearing but are making a recovery
    - - Located: Arctic covering/covers about 20% of earthb
      - Precipitation: 20-60cm, but can exceed 100cm
      - Temperature
        
        Winters are cold below than -30 degrees Celsius
        
        Summers avg less than 10 degrees
        
        High winds/low temos
      - Plants
        
        Alpine tundra plant communities (on all mountain tops)
        
        Permafrost permits the growth of roots
        
        Herbaceous: mosses,grasses,forbs
        
        Dwarf shrubs
      - Animals
        
        Migratory reindeer
        
        Predators; bears, wolves, foxes
        
        Migratory birds
- - - - 0 population growth= low birth rate -low death rate
      - 0 population growth= high birth rate-high death rate
  - - - use logistic equations
      - difficult
      - condiser factors afecting population
    - - we have multiple needs: water/food/fuel/building material/other
      - ecological footprint: summarizes aggregate water and land area needed for each person/city/nation to produce all of its necessary nutrient and absorbs all waste it generate
      - global hectares: (gha) land/water area that human uses
      - unequal food distribution
      - technological methods have helped distribution of resources, increasing capacity but cant grow indefinitely
- - - - delta(N): change in population size
      - delta(t)=time interval
      - B:birth
      - D:death
    - - R=B-D
      - delta(N)/delta(t)=R
    - - (r)delta(t)= contribution an individual makes per capita
      - figure out the amount of individuals that will be added
      - delta(N)/delta(t)=(r)delta(t)
    - - dN/dt=rN
      - r= per capita change in population size that occurs at each time interval
      - d= shorter interval
  - - - dN/dt=rN
      - dN/dt= rate of the population increases
      - N=current population size
      - r= intrinsic rate of increase: per capita rate at which a population is growing exponentially at each time interval
      - increases at a constant rate per individual
      - j curve
        
        org that go to a new environment
        
        reduced by a catastrophic event and are rebuilding
      - high intrinsic rate=population grows faster
- - - - how many offspring reproduced per reproduction
      - how often they reproduce
      - reproduction begins
        
        varies between species
  - - - small
        
        small offspring if low survival chances
        
        small size can be helpful for survival (easier to carry around)
        
        animals with high predation rates
      - parental investment increases the offspring survival
    - - reaching at capacity
      - stronger competition
    - - increases intrinsic rate
      - little competition
      - low density
- - - - Landscapes: mosaic of connected ecosystems
    - - Biosphere: global ecosystem; sum of all the ecosystems and landscapes
- - - - Geographic isolation
      - Species distribution
      - Natural Range Expansion and Adaptive Radiation
        
        Rage expansion: organisms reach areas they have never been before due to dispersal
        
        Adaptive radiation: rapid evolution of an ancestral species into a new one to fill ecological niches
        
        Long distance dispersal
        
        Natural rang expansion influence species distribution
      - Species transplants
        
        For a successful transplant there must be the organism must be able to survive the new area and reproduce
        
        Potential Range large than actual range
        
        New species can interrupt current species living there
      - Biotic
        
        Have a limitation on species
        
        Predators/herbivores can limit certain species
      - Abiotic
        
        Temperature:
        
        Affects biological process
        
        Cell may freeze and explode
        
        Denature
        
        Some organisms have adaptions this helps them survive harsh consigns like extreme cold/hot temps
        
        Water and oxygen
        
        Variation and availability
        
        Terrestrial organisms have adaptions to conserve water
        
        Several organisms must live in areas with a lot of available wtaer due to not drying out
        
        Water affects oxygen availability in aquatic environments=slow down diffusion of oxygen
        
        Limit cellular respiration
        
        Other physical processes
        
        Certain surface root adaptions in water/streams and rivers Obama in a lot of O2 on surface
        
        Sunlight
        
        Drives most ecosystem
        
        Limits distribution of photosynthetic org
        
        water absorbs about 45% or red light and 2% of blue light=photosynthesis on surface
        
        Salinity
        
        Affects organism water balance through osmosis
        
        Some organisms have adaptions to live in high salinity
        
        Rocks/Soil
        
        pH/acidic/basic; nutrient absorption
        
        Mineral composition
        
        Physical structure
        
        Affect the water chemistry
        
        Limit species distributions
        
        Physical factors all vary within space and time making conditions unsuitable
- - - - Specific county
      - Study of oak trees
  - - - Sometimes densities can be counted physically
      - Scientist use techniques to count the population of species
      - Population estimate are best when there are many samples
        
        Use an indicator of population size
        
        Mark-recapture method: used to capture wildlife population
        
        Scientist collect samples of individuals in populations and mark them, they do this twice
        
        (x)= the number of marked animals in the second marking
        
        (n)=total number of animals captured in the second marking
        
        (s)=number of individuals in the first sampling
        
        (N): estimated population size
        
        N=sn/x
      - Not static can fluctuate
        
        Added or removed from population
        
        Birth
        
        Immigration: influx of new individuals from other areas
        
        Death
        
        Emigration: movement of individuals out of a population into another location
    - - Clumped: individuals are aggregated in patches
        
        Plants/fungi
        
        Insects can be clumped on a certain log/location
        
        Mating behavior
        
        Predation defense
      - Uniform: evenly spaced may result from direct individual interactions
        
        Some plants have secretions that inhibit nearby growth
        
        Animals have agnostic interactions
        
        Territoriality: defense of a bounded physical space from other individuals
      - Random: unpredictable spacing
        
        Constant physical/chemical factors
        
        No strong attractions
        
        Wind blown seeds
  - - - Use molecular tools to count the reproductive rates
      - Use genetic profiles to identify which female laid the eggs
      - Mammals offspring can be counted directly or used molecular methods in a certain age group
      - High reproductive rate does not mean rapid population growth
    - - Cohort: group of individuals of the same age from birth up to death
      - Keeps tract of individuals being produced
      - Females are usually main concentrations
    - - numbers in a cohort still alive at each age
      - Multiply the proportion alive(X)by the beginning cohort
      - 3 types of survivorship curve
        
        Type I: flat at the start(low death rate in the beginning ) and steeps down as death rates increase as age group increases (Mammals )
        
        Type III: drops sharply at the start (high young deaths rate) and flattens out as death rates decrease as individuals get older (survive early die off )
        
        Intermediate with a constant death rate
        
        Plants/fishes/oysters/marine invertebrates
        
        Lots of offspring born and few survive and last a longtime.
        
        Type II: constant deaths rate, die at equal rates regardless of age
- - - - death affected by density independent
      - temperature/precipitation
    - - water and nutrients become more scarce
      - factors affecting birth rate/
  - - - can be caused by harsh conditions and various other factors
      - can be triggered by other things occurring at the moment
    - - can be genetically engineered
      - network of local populations
- - - - binds to receptor in central nervous system
      - released during mating
  - - - behavioral variation within a species= prey selection
      - certain foods are genetically engineered
      - prey aslo depend on location
    - - genetic bases
      - migration can be determined by genetic differences
    - - reduces an animals individual fitness but increases fitness of others in the population
      - alarming others in pack
      - bee workers die for their Queen
    - - total effect an individual has on proliferating its genes by producing its own offspring and providing aid to close relatives
      - Hamilton
    - - Hamiltons hypothesis
        
        Measure
        
        Quantify
        
        3 key variables in altruism
        
        Benefit to the recipient
        
        Cost to the altruism
        
        Coefficient of relatedness
      - (B) benefit: average number of extra offspring that the recipient of an altruistic act produces
      - (C) cost: how many fewer offspring the alturist produces
      - Coefficient of relatedness(r): the fraction of gens shared
      - Hamiltons rule: rB>C; natural. Selection favors the altruistic act
      - Kings selection: natural selection favors altruism by enhancing reproductive success of relatedness
        
        Weakens with heredity distance
        
        BB decreases when heredity is distant
        
        Populations are usually consisted of close relatives
    - - altruistic act to non relatives
      - Can be adaptive if aided individual returns favor
      - Limited to certain species that have social groups
      - “Cheating”: not returning behavior for the altruistic act done
      - Game theory:
        
        Tit for tat: behavioral strategy where individuals treat other the way it wants to be treated
        
        If behavior is not reciprocated it will stop until it is reciprocated once more
    - - Behave and misbehave similar to animals
      - We are more capable of getting adapting new behaviors and skills
      - Some behaviors are not easily explained
        
        Play: purposeless behavior
        
        Object play
        
        Locomotion play
        
        Social play
        
        Prepares for unexpected behaviors
      - Sociobiology: the study of social behavior based on evolutionary theory
        
        Certain behaviors exist because they are genetically engineered from natural selection
        
        Based on humans because we have our own type of adaptions