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Blood and Lymph (Blood (physical characteristics of blood: (thicker than…

- - - - proteinaceous fluid portion of circulating blood; over 90% water, 7% plasma proteins, 2% other substances
        
        Albumin= maintains blood osmotic pressure
        
        globulins (immunoglobins)
        
        antibodies bind to foreign substances called antigens
        
        form anitgen-antibody complexes
        
        Fibrogen= used for clotting
        
        other substances= electrolytes, nutrients, hormones, gases, waste products
      - obtained when using anti-coagulants; Heparin, EDTA
  - - - Formation of blood cells:
        
        most blood cells types need to be continually replaced, die w/in hours, days or weeks
        
        Process of blood cells formation is hematopoiesis or hemopoisesis
        
        in the embryo
        
        occurs in yolk sac, liver, spleen, thymus, lymph nodes & red bone marrow
        
        in adult
        
        occurs only in red marrow of flat bones like sternum, ribs, skull & pelvis and ends of long bones
      - Blood cell types:
        
        contain oxygen-carrying protein hemoglobin that gives blood its red color
        
        Hemoglobin: globulin protein consisting of 4 polypeptide chains
        
        each hemoglobin molecule can carry 4 oxygen molecules from lungs to tissue cells; oxyhemoglobin
        
        Hemoglobin transports 23% of total carbon dioxide waste from tissue cells to lungs for release
        
        One heme pigment attached to each polypeptide chain
        
        Each heme contains an iron ion that can bind reversibly with one oxygen molecule
      - Erythropoeisis: production of red blood cells
        
        Pro-erythroblast starts to produce hemoglobin
        
        Many steps later the nucleus is ejected and a reticulocyte is formed
        
        Orange in color with traces of visible rough ER
        
        Reticulocytes escape from bone marrow into the blood
        
        In 1-2 days they eject the remaining organelles to become a mature RBC
      - control of red blood cell production
        
        tissue hypoxia (cells not getting enough oxygen)
        
        High altitude since air has less oxygen
        
        anemia
        
        Red blood cell production falls below red blood cell destruction
        
        circulatory problems
        
        Kidney response to hypoxia
        
        release erythropoietin
        
        speeds up development of pro-erythroblast into reticulocytes
    - - granular leukocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
        
        Neutrophils
        
        primary granulocyte: highest % during immune response
        
        first line of defense; phagocytic action
        
        destroyed during response
        
        direct actions against bacteria
        
        release lysozymes which destroy/ digest bacteria
        
        release strong oxidants that destroy bacteria
        
        Release defensing protein that acts like antibiotics and pokes holes in bacteria cell wall
        
        Eosinophils
        
        Small portion of total leukocytes; though may increase with immune reactions
        
        Phagocytic in nature
        
        Regulation of allergic and tissue responses
        
        Release histaminase = slows down inflammation caused by basophils
        
        Basophils
        
        Large, dark purple, variable-sized granules stained with basic dyes
        
        Involved in inflammatory and allergy reactions
        
        Leaves capillaries and enter connective tissue as mast cells
        
        Mast cells:
        
        similar to basophils, found in many sites throughout the body
        
        Especially prevalent in connective tissue below an epithelial lining exposed to the external environment
        
        Also responds during allergic reactions, just like basophils
        
        Release heparin, histamine and serotonin
      - Agranular leukocytes: lymphocytes (T cell, B cell and natural killer cells), platelets (special cell fragments)
        
        lymphocytes:
        
        Function in specific immune responses and regulation
        
        B cells: destroy bacteria and toxins
        
        T cells: attack viruses, fungi, transplanted organs, cancer cells and some bacteria
        
        Natural killer cells: attack many different microbes and some tumor cells
        
        Platelet:
        
        Function= essential part of hemostasis
        
        Maintenance of vascular integrity
        
        Platelet plug formation
        
        Stabilization of hemostatic plug
        
        Hemostasis: stoppage of bleeding
        
        Quick and localized fashion when blood vessels are damaged
        
        Prevents hemorrhage= loss of a large amount of blood
      - all have a nucleus and no hemoglobin
      - independent movement out of blood vessels
      - immune response
- - - - Found throughout the body, except in avascular tissue
      - Designed to let tissue fluid in but not out
      - Anchoring filaments keep tube from collapsing under outside pressure
      - Overlapping endothelial cells open when tissue pressure is high
  - - - Provide environment of stem cells to divide and mature into B cells and T cells
      - red bone marrow gives rise to mature B cells
      - thymus is where pre-T cell form
    - - site where most immune response occur
        
        spleen
        
        Located between stomach and diaphragm
        
        Stroma consists of capsule, tradeculae, fibers and fibroblasts
        
        Hilus contains blood and lymphatic vessels
        
        Parenchyma consists of white pulp and red pulp
        
        White= lymphatic tissue around branches of splenic artery
        
        Red= venous sinuses filled with blood and splenic tissue
        
        lymph nodes
        
        Bean-shaped organs located along lymphatic vessels
        
        scattered throughout body
        
        • Stroma is capsule, trabeculae and reticular fibers
        
        Parenchyma is divided into two regions:
        
        Cortex- lymphatic nodules
        
        Medulla- contains B cells and plasma cells
        
        flows in one direction
        
        afferent vessels lead in
        
        sinuses lead to efferent vessels that exit as hilus
        
        lymphatic nodule
        
        Concentrations of lymphatic tissue not surrounded by a capsule scattered throughout connective tissue of mucous membranes
        
        Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)
        
        Peyer’s patches in the ileum of the small intestine
        
        appendix
        
        Tonsils form ring at top of throat