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Chapters 51-53 (Animal behaviors (Ch51) (Innate (behaviors that don't…

- - - - a population that experiences such ideal conditions increases in
        size by a constant proportion at each instant in time
      - basically how population can explode
      - the size of the population that is growing exponentially increases at a constant rate/ individuals -> J-shaped curve
      - no growth/ upper limit
      - better suited for bacterial cultures that
        have unlimited resources such as space and food.
      - Ex: food is kept at room/warm temp, the food get spoiled after some time bc microorganisms grow exponentially at warm temp
    - - S-shaped growth curve
      - applies to a population that approaches its carrying capacity
      - ends up with slightly constant population growth rate (when the
        population growth rate reaches its carrying capacity)
      - can be seen in many populations, and it is more realistic than
        exponential growth
      - carrying capacity of a population is the upper limit of a logistic growth model
      - Carrying capacity: symbolized by K, the maximum population size that a particular environment can sustain
      - EX: Yeast's growth curve is S-shaped. Its growth levels off as the population depletes the nutrients necessary for its growth
  - - - Competition for resources
        
        when a population is too crowded, they compete for nutrients and resources, reducing reproductive rates
        
        EX: barnacles competing for space on rocks
      - Disease
        
        disease spreads quickly through densely packed populations due to how close organisms are to one another
        
        COVID-19 spreads more quickly in countries/areas where population are packed
      - Predation
        
        as a prey population builds up, predators may also feed preferentially and capture more food on that species
        
        predator and prey populations tend to cycle together, with predator population lagging somewhat behind the prey population
        
        Ex:collared lemming population increases lead to density dependent predation by many predators, including the snowy owl.
      - Territoriality
        
        it limits population density when space becomes the resource for which individuals compete
        
        the presence of surplus or non breeding individuals is a good
        indication that territoriality is restricting population growth
        
        EX: cheetahs use a chemical marker in urine to warn other cheetahs of their territorial boundaries
      - Intrinsic factors
        
        reproduction can be dropped at high population density
        
        aggressive interactions and hormonal changes that delay sexual maturation and depress the immune system
        
        EX: reproductive rates of white-footed mice in a field enclosure can drop even when food and shelter are abundant
      - Toxic wastes
        
        some substances in the environment are toxic to organisms and restrict the population growth
        
        EX: the ethanol that accumulates in wine is toxic to yeasts and contributes to regulation of yeast population size
    - - vary depending on the population, but always affect the population the same regardless of its size
      - Natural disasters: affects all species and individuals within its path, regardless of how many there were
      - Pollution: a slow and steady drag on populations over time
      - Density independent factors for honeybees include things like weather and temperature. Regardless of the population size, if the weather does not stick to this pattern, many bees will die
  - - - no longer growing exponentially but still increasing rapidly
      - In 1650, about 500mi people inhabited Earth
      - doubled to 1bi within the next 2 centuries, 2bi by 1930, 4bi by 1975
      - our population has grown even faster than exponential growth
      - now the global population is increasing by about 78 mi each year
      - predict there will be 8.1-10.6 bi people by the year 2050
      - rate of growth began to slow during the 1960s
      - reduction in annual growth rate due to diseases, including AIDS, and to voluntary population control
    - - Afganistan: rapid growth; the pyramid bottom is heavy, skewed toward young individuals
      - US: age structure relatively even until the older; reproductive rate is near replacement rate, population grows due to immigrations
      - Italy: pyramid has small base, individuals younger than reproductive age relatively underrepresented in the population
    - - aggregate land and water area needed to produce all resources a person or group of people consume and to absorb all their waste
      - measure of how close we are to the carrying capacity of Earth, which is uncertain
      - estimate by adding up all the ecologically productive land on the planet and dividing by the size of human population
      - sustainable ecological footprint: average 1.7 gha/person
      - in many developed countries, typical ecological footprint for a person is way higher than 1.7 (US: 8)
      - overusing energy and fossil fuels in developed countries affect Earth's climate as well as produce more waste
      - some limiting factors that perhaps eventually limit population growth: food, capacity of the environment to absorb its wastes
- - - - winds and ocean currents are in constant motion, this movement doesn't follow a straight line but bends and curves
      - a force acting perpendicular to the direction of motion and axis of rotation of a moving object in a rotating system
      - wind streams on the north hemisphere spin counter-clockwise and that blows S of the equator; S-hemisphere, spin clockwise.
      - determines/predicts the direction of the global atmospheric circulation currents like the westerlies, polar winds, trade winds
    - - dry area on the side of a mountain opposite to the wind (leeward side)
      - moist air gets blocked by the mountain, area on leeward side has little rainfall
      - air passes over the mountain range, it moves down the leeward side, warms, and dries out. This dry air produces a rain shadow.
      - Land in a rain shadow is typically very dry and receives much less precipitation and cloud cover than land on the windward side
      - are typically determined where deserts are located
    - - causing seasons
      - The exact tilt of the Earth is currently about 23.4 degrees
      - different areas receive different amounts of sunlight during the Earth's orbit, creating the four seasons
      - ie. the north pole is tilted toward the sun, the northern hemisphere faces the sun at greater angle than southern, gets warmer
  - - - Location: equatorial and subequatorial regions
      - Tropical rainforest: rain fall avg 200-400cm annually, humid; dry forest: precipitation highly seasonal, 150-200cm, 6-7 months dry
      - Temperature: avg 27 degrees C, hot year round, very little seasonal variation
      - Rainforests: broadleaf evergreen trees are dominant; Dry forests: thorny shrubs and succulent plants
      - animal diversity is higher in tropical forests than in any other terrestrial biome
    - - located in bands near 30N/S latitude or at other latitudes in the interior of continents
      - Precipitation: dry and highly variable
      - Temperature: variable seasonally and daily
      - Dominant plants: low, widely scattered vegetation
      - Dominant animals: snakes, lizards, scorpions, ants, beetles, migratory and resident birds, seed-eating rodents
    - - located in equatorial and subequatorial regions
      - Precipitation: seasonal rainfall avg 30-50cm/year; dry season lasts 8-9months
      - warm year-round; somewhat more seasonal variation than in tropical forests; 24-29C
      - Dominant plants: scattered, thorny trees have small leaves; forbs
      - Dominant animals: insects, especially termites
    - - Location: midlatitude coastal regions on several continents
      - Precipitation: highly seasonal: rainy winters and dry summers
      - Fall, winter, spring: cool (10-12C); summer: hot (avg 30C, sometimes it can reach 40C)
      - Dominant plants: shrubs, small trees, grasses and herbs
      - Dominant animals: browers, such as deer, goats; buds of woody vegetation; amphibians, birds, reptiles, insects
    - - Locations: veldts of S Africa; puszta of hungary; pampas of AR and UY; steppes of RU; plains and prairies of central N America
      - Precipitation: highly seasonal: dry winters, wet summers
      - Temperature: winters: cold (avg < -10C); summers: hot (avg 30C)
      - Dominant plants: grasses and forbs
      - Dominant animals: large grazers such as bison and wild horses; prairie dogs
    - - extending in broadband across northern North America and Eurasia to the edge of the arctic tundra
      - largest terrestrial biome on Earth
      - Precipitation: dry; droughts are common; some coastal coniferous forests of the US pacific northwest are temperate rainforests
      - Temperature: seasonal: winters are cold (-50C); summers are hot (>20C)
      - Dominant plants: cone bearing trees such as pine, spruce, fir and hemlock
      - Dominant animals: moose, brown bears, siberian tigers
    - - Locations: midlatitudes in the northern hemisphere, smaller areas in chile, south africa, australia, and new zealand
      - Precipitation: seasonal: summer rain and in some forest, winter snow; rainfall: 70 to over 200cm annually
      - Temperature: winter: cold (0C); summer: hot (35C) and humid
      - Dominant plants: deciduous trees: drop their leaves before winter; in aus, evergreen eucalyptus trees
      - Dominant animals: mammals, birds, insects
    - - expansive areas of the arctic; alpine tundra: on very high mountaintops at all latitudes including the tropics
      - Precipitation: dry in tundra; wet in alpine tundra
      - Temperature: winter: really cold (< -30C) ; summer: <10C
      - Dominant plants: herbaceous, mixture of mosses, grasses, forbs, along with some dwarf shrubs and trees and lichens
      - Dominant animals: large grazing musk oxen are resident, caribou and reindeer are migratory; predators: bears, wolves, foxes; bird species migrate for summer nesting
  - - - Physical characteristics
        
        Lakes are standing bodies of water, which range from ponds to lakes covering thousands of square kilometers
        
        Lights decreases with depth, creating stratification
        
        Temperate lakes: seasonal thermocline year-round; tropical lowland lakes: thermocline year-round
      - Chemical
        
        oligotrophic lakes: nutrient-poor, oxygen-rich; decomposable organic matter in bottom sediments is low
        
        eutrophic lakes: nutrient-rich, depleted of oxygen in the deepest zone in summer and if covered with ice in winter
        
        high rates of decomposition in deeper layers of eutrophic lakes cause periodic O2 depletion
    - - Physical
        
        habitat inundated by water at least some of the time and that supports plants adapted to water-saturated soil
        
        some are inundated all the time; others flood frequently
      - Chemical
        
        high organic productions; water and soils are low in dissolved O2
        
        high capacity to filter dissolved nutrients and chemical pollutants
    - - Physical
        
        the most prominent physical characteristic is the speed and volume of their flow
        
        headwater streams are cold, clear, swift, turbulent
        
        Downstream, numerous tributaries have joined forming rivers
        
        rivers: water is warmer, more turbid
        
        are stratified into vertical zones
      - Chemical
        
        salt and nutrient: increase from the headwaters to the mouth
        
        Headwater: rich O2; downstream: substantial O2, except organic enrichment area
        
        Organic matter in rivers have dissolved material that is carried by the forested streams
    - - Physical
        
        a transition area between river and sea
        
        Rising tide: seawater flows up the estuary channel; falling tide: flows back down
        
        Higher density seawater occupies the bottom of the channel and mixes little with the lower density at the surface
      - Chemical
        
        salinity varies; nearly salinity of fresh water to that of seawater
        
        sanity varies in rise and fall of the tides
        
        nutrients: the most productive biomes
    - - Physical
        
        periodically submerged and exposed by the tides, twice daily on most marine shores
        
        upper zones: longer exposures to air, greater variations in temp and salinity
        
        limit distributions of many organisms
      - Chemical: O2 and nutrient levels are high and renewed with each turn of the tides
    - - Physical
        
        vast realm of open blue water
        
        mixed by wind driven oceanic currents
        
        bc of higher water clarity, photic zone extends to greater depths than in coastal marine waters
      - Chemical
        
        O2 high; nutrients lower than in coastal waters
        
        some tropical areas of the oceanic pelagic zone have lower nutrient concentrations than temperate oceans
        
        turnover between fall and spring renews nutrients in the photic zones of temperate and high latitude ocean areas
    - - Physical
        
        formed from CaCO3 skeletons of corals
        
        shallow reef-building corals live in photic zone of stable tropical marine environments
        
        environments: high water clarity, near islands, along the edge of some continents
        
        sensitive to temps below 18-20C, above 30C
        
        deep-sea coral reefs are less known than shallow counterparts but harbor as much diversity as many shallow reefs do
      - Chemical: high O2 levels, high inputs of fresh water and nutrients
    - - Physical
        
        consists of seafloor below the surface waters of the coastal and the offshore pelagic zone
        
        near coastal areas, it receives no sunlights
        
        with depth, water temp: decrease, pressure: increase
      - Chemical: except in areas of organic enrichment, o2 is usually present at sufficient concentrations to support diverse animal life