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biology chapter 10 (photosynthesis (during oxygenic photosynthesis, light…
biology chapter 10
photosynthesis
Photosynthesis in plants generally involves the green pigment chlorophyll and generates oxygen as a byproduct.
most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product
photosynthesis is largely responsible for producing and maintaining the oxygen content of the Earth's atmosphere
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is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms' activities.
This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars,
which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water – hence the name photosynthesis,
In plants, algae and cyanobacteria, long-term energy storage in the form of sugars is produced
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some bacteria use different mechanisms, such as the reverse Krebs cycle, to achieve the same en
process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods from carbon dioxide and water.
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In plants, these proteins are held inside organelles called chloroplasts,
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stages
In the first stage, light-dependent reactions or light reactions capture the energy of light
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During the second stage, the light-independent reactions use these products to capture and reduce carbon dioxide.
during oxygenic photosynthesis, light energy transfers electrons from water (H2O) to carbon dioxide (CO2), to produce carbohydrates. I
Oxygenic photosynthesis functions as a counterbalance to respiration by taking in the carbon dioxide
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In this transfer, the CO2 is "reduced," or receives electrons, and the water becomes "oxidized," or loses electrons.
Ultimately, oxygen is produced along with carbohydrates.
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structure of atoms
Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass, about 1.67 × 10-24 grams,
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This can be determined using the atomic number and the mass number of the element (see the concept on atomic numbers and mass numbers).
The hydrogen atom (H) contains only one proton, one electron, and no neutrons.
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An atom is composed of two regions: the nucleus, which is in the center of the atom and contains protons and neutrons,.
Atoms consist of three basic particles: protons, electrons, and neutrons. The nucleus (center) of the atom
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The outermost regions of the atom are called electron shells and contain the electrons (negatively charged)
and the outer region of the atom, which holds its electrons in orbit around the nucleus
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key terms
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atomic mass: The average mass of an atom, taking into account all its naturally occurring isotopes.
types of elements
nonmetals
These include carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), oxygen (O), sulfur (S) and selenium (Se).
The halogens are quite chemically reactive and tend to pair up with alkali metals to produce various types of salt.
The table salt in your kitchen, for example, is a marriage between the alkali metal sodium and the halogen chlorine.
The top four elements of Group 17, from fluorine (F) through astatine (At), represent one of two subsets of the nonmetals. T
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ncluding: hydrogen, helium, oxygen, nitrogen, fluorine, neon or radon and many others
Everything else to the upper right of the staircase — plus hydrogen (H), stranded way back in Group 1 — is a nonmetal.
Physically, a nonmetal tends to have a relatively low melting point, boiling point, and density.
nonmetal is typically brittle when solid and usually has poor thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity
inert gases
Many chemists expect oganesson, one of the four newly named elements, to share these characteristics
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however, because this element has a half-life measuring in the milliseconds, no one has been able to test it directly.
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: Colorless, odorless and almost completely nonreactive, the inert, or noble gases round out the table in Group 18. ), it will loop around to start row eight in the alkali metal column.
The noble gases often do not react with many substances and were historically referred to as the inert gases
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metals
The alkali metals make up most of Group 1, the table's first column.
The alkaline-earth metals make up Group 2 of the periodic table, from beryllium (Be) through radium (Ra).
Each of these elements has two electrons in its outermost energy level, . But they're not as reactive as the alkali metals.
Their chemical reactions typically occur more slowly and produce less heat compared to the alkali metals.
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The third group is broken out and flipped sideways to become the top row of the island that floats at the bottom of the table.
This is the lanthanides, elements 57 through 71 — lanthanum (La) to lutetium (Lu). The elements in this group have a silvery white color and tarnish on contact with air.
hiny and soft enough to cut with a knife, these metals start with lithium (Li) and end with francium (Fr)
so chemists store them in oils or inert gases. Hydrogen, with its single electron, also lives in Group 1, but the gas is considered a nonmetal.
They are also extremely reactive and will burst into flame or even explode on contact with water,
The actinides line the bottom row of the island and comprise elements 89,. All are radioactive.
actinium (Ac), through 103, lawrencium (Lr). Of these elements, only thorium (Th) and uranium (U) occur naturally on Earth in substantial amounts
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the remainder of Groups 3 through 12 represent l. Many of the greatest hits of the metal world — including gold, silver, iron and platinum — live here.
the transition metals. Hard but malleable, shiny, and possessing good conductivity, these elements are what you typically think of when you hear the word metal
\ metalloids are boron (B), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), tellurium (Te) and polonium (Po). They form the staircase that represents the gradual transition from metals to nonmetals
These elements sometimes behave as semiconductors (B, Si, Ge) rather than as conductors.s."
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