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Chapter 42 & 44 (Blood components function in exchange,transport and…

- - - - Has higher protein concentration than interstitial fluid
  - - - Adult erythrocytes lacks a nuclei,mitochondria and ATP Meade by anaerobic metabolism
        
        Shortest lived cells circulating for about 120 days
      - Leaves space for tiny cells for hemoglobin
        
        Hemoglobin: iron-containing protein that transport O2
        
        Binds up to 4 O2 molecules
        
        Sickle-cell disease: abnormal form of hemoglobin polymerizes into aggregates
        
        Can impair function of circulatory system
  - - - Phagocytes: engulf/digest microorganisms/debris from body’s own dead cells
      - Lymphocytes: mount immune responses against foreign substances
  - - - Stem cells that produce the cellular element of blood cells are located in the red marrow inside bones
        
        Mainly in ribs and vertebrae, pelvis and sternum
  - - - Active enzyme involved in clotting
        
        Mutation that block step in clot in process is called Homophilia
        
        Homophilia: disease characterized by a bleeding/bruising from minor cuts or bumps
      - Can also form and blood vessels blocking so but call Thrombus
  - - - A.k.a. myocardinal infarction
        
        Damage or death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary artery (supplies oxygen rich blood to heart muscle)
        
        If large enough portion is blocked off heart will start beating :
        
        Perform CPR or other emergency procedure to restore heartbeat
    - - Death of nervous tissue and brain due to lack of O2
        
        Results from rupture of blockage of arteries in head
      - Hypertension
        
        Cause of both heart attack and stroke
        
        Damage endothelium that lines arteries promoting plaque formation
        
        Systolic pressure above diastolic pressure
        
        Easy to diagnose usually controlled by dietary changes, exercise, medication or combination of these approaches
    - - Caused by damage or infection to lining of healthy arteries
      - Hardening of the arteries by accumulation of fat deposits
        
        Key component,cholesterol
        
        Cholesterol
        
        Travels in blood plasma; Two types of particles
        
        Low density lipoprotein
        
        Delivers cholesterol to cells for membrane production
        
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        High density lipoprotein
        
        Searches for excess his cholesterol for returning to liver
        
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- - - - Distraction of water and small solutes including metabolic waste from the body fluid
    - - Water, salts, sugars, amino acids and nitrogenous wastes, cross membrane forming this solution
        
        Reabsorption: Recovers use for molecules in water from filtrate and return them to body fluid
        
        Nonessential solutes And wastes are left in the filtrate or are added to it by selective secretion
  - - - Were nonessential solutes and waters are left in the filter
  - - - Net worth of dead in tubules that branch throughout the body
        
        Cellular units call flame bulbs cap the branches of each protonephridium
  - - - Pair of these found in each segment of an annelid
    - - Remove nitrogenous wastes and that also function in the Osmo regulation
      - Extend from dead end tips covered in hemolymph to openings of digestive tract
        
        Fluids passes from there to rectum
  - - - Nonsegmented in vertebrates
- - - - Excess water uptake = swollen/bursted cells
      - If water loss is substantial cells shrivel up and die
      - Osmolarity: Unit of measurement for a saw you concentration (Moles of solutes per liter of solution
        
        Two solutions with same osmolarity is called Isoosmotic
        
        Water molecules continuously cross semi permeable membrane at equal rates in both directions
  - - - Marine animals
        
        External and internal osmolarity is the same; No tendency to gain or lose water
      - Hypoosmotic environments
        
        Osmoregulator must discharge excess water
    - - Control internal osmolarity independent of its external environment
        
        Freshwater and terrestrial habitats
        
        Dehydration and land animals
        
        Nocturnal animals are able to reduce evaporation water loss due to low temp and high humidity at night
        
        Desert animals
        
        Adaptive for minimizing water loss to survive long periods without drinking
        
        Example – camels
  - - - “ Living without water” A dormant state when their habitats dry up
        
        Ex: water berries contain about 85% water by weight can dehydrate to less than 2% percent water survive in an inactivated state, dry as dust, for a decade or more
  - - - Energy cost depends on animals osmolarity difference from the surrounding
      - Energy costs to an animal of maintaining water salt balance is minimized by having body fluids adapted to animals habitat
- - - - Tissue layer that differ among capillaries arteries and veins surround endothelium
        
        Capillaries
        
        Surround extra thin layer cell called basal lamina
        
        Blood & fluid exchange only occurs here due to thin wall
  - - - After passin cap.the blood speeds up as it enters venules and veins with smaller total cross sectional areas
      - Roughly 7 billion caps.in human body
    - - Contraction of heart ventricle generates blood pressure
        
        Pressure highest when heart contracts during ventricular systole
        
        Diastolic pressure: walls of arteries snap back. Consequence, there’s lower but still substantial blood pressure when ventricles are relaxed
        
        Systolic pressure
        
        Pulse: rhythmic bulging of the arteries
      - Regulation
        
        Vasoconstriction: homeostatic mech.regulates arterial blood pressure by changing size of arterioles. If smooth muscles arterioles wall contract, arterioles
        
        Inc blood pressure upstream in the arteries
        
        Vasodilation: when smooth muscles relax
        
        Inc in diameter causing blood pressure in arteries to fall
      - Gravity
        
        ex: when standing, head is higher than chest, arterial blood pressure in brain is 27 mm Hg less than that near heart
        
        Key to understanding fainting
        
        Fainting is triggered when nervous system detects blood pressure in head is lower than normal
        
        Body collapse to ground to level head to heart, quickly inc blood flow to brain
        
        Ex: blood flow in veins like to the legs
        
        When sitting or standing, gravity draws blood downward to feet & prevents its upward return to heart
        
        Runner/atheletes can suffer from heart failure if they stop tough workout abruptly
        
        When leg muscles suddenly cease contracting/relaxing, less blood return to heart, heart continue to beat quickly
        
        “Cool down walk”
  - - - Two Mechanisms
        
        Constriction or dilation of arterioles that supply cap.beds
        
        Mechanisms regulated by nerve impulses,hormones traveling thru bloodstream & chem made locally
        
        Opening/closing of muscular rings regulates & redirects passage of blood into certain sets of caps.
    - - Blood pressure drives fluid out caps
      - Presence of blood proteins pull fluid back
        
        Blood & blood proteins too large to pass thru endothelium, so it remains in caps. Dissolved proteins responsible for Osmotic pressure
        
        osmotic pressure: pressure made by diff in solute concentration across membrane
  - - - Recovered fluids is called lymph
      - Joins with cardiovascular system thus completing fluid recovery due to caps and transfer lipids from small intestine to blood
    - - Filtering organs used to defend body from infection/ filled with white blood cells
- - - - Have total surface area greater than the rest of the body’s exterior
      - Ventilation
        
        Movement of the respiratory medium over the respiratory surface
        
        Example: fish either move gillls through water or move water over gills
    - - Countercurrent exchange
        
        Used to maximize efficient gas exchange;
        
        Definition: let’s change of a substance or heat between two fluids flowing in opposite directions
        
        Blood and water
  - - - Gas always undergo net diffusion from high pressure pressure to low pressure pressure regions
  - - - Largest tubes called tracheae, opens to the outside
        
        At tips of the branches, moist epithelial lining enables gas exchange by diffusion
  - - - Branching ducts convey air to the lungs which are located in the thoracic cavity, enclosed by ribs and diaphragm
      - Breathing process
        
        Nasal cavity leads to pharynx (cross section for food and air)
        
        When food swallowed; the larynx moves upward & tips epiglottis over glottis (opening of windpipe)
        
        Allows food to go down esophagus and not windpipe/ rest of the time in the glottis is open enabling for breathing
    - - Branches into 2 Bronchi leading to each lung
        
        Bronchioles
        
        Inside lung, bronchi branch repeatedly into finer & finer tubes
        
        Alveoli
        
        We are most gas exchange occurs in mammals
        
        Air sac clusters at the tip of the smallest bronchioles
        
        human lungs contain millions of alveoli
        
        Air sacs produce a mixture of phospholipids and proteins called surfactant
        
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- - - - Diffusion can result in net movement
    - - Natural selection
        
        Plan that outs each cells in direct contact with environment
        
        Cells exchange materials directly with surrounding medium
        
        Ex: Cnidarians and flatworms
        
        Gastrovascular cavities
        
        In animals, fluid bathes inner and outer tissue layers causing exchange in gases and cellular waste
        
        Cells lining cavity have direct access to nutrients released by digestion
        
        Function in distribution of substances throughout body (digestion)
        
        Ex: hydras, jellies, cnidarians
  - - - Interconnecting vessels
      - Heart
      - Circulatory fluid
        
        Connects aqueous environment of the body cells to organs that exchange gases, absorbs nutrients, and dispose of waste
    - - Hemolymph: circulatory fluid aka interstitial fluid
        
        Bathes body cells
        
        Heart pumps fluid and body cells can exchange gases and other chems.
        
        Relaxed heart draws fluid back in through pores
        
        Evolutionary advantages
        
        Lower hydrostatic pressures allows for less energy to be used
      - Ex: Arthropoda like grasshoppers and clams
    - - Blood: circulatory fluid
        
        Only in vessels & distinct from interstitial fluid
        
        Chem exchange occurs b/t blood and interstitial fluid and cell body
        
        Ex:Annelids (earthworms), cephalopods and vertbrates
      - Evolutionary advantages
        
        Blood pressure high enough to enable effective delivery of O2/nutrients in larger/active animals
        
        Good at regulating distribution of blood to different organs
  - - - Venules
        
        Function: Vessel conveys blood b/t capillary bed and vein
      - Veins
        
        Function: carries blood towards heart
      - Arterioles
        
        Function: vessel conveys blood b/t an artery and capillary bed
      - Capillaries
        
        Function: blood vessel penetrating tissues & consists of single layer of endothelial cells that allows exchange b/t blood & interstitial fluids
      - Arteries
        
        Function: carries blood from heart to organs
      - Atria
        
        Function: chamber of the vertebrates heart that gets blood from veins & transfer it to a ventricle
      - Ventricles
        
        Function: heart chamber that pumps blood out of heart
      - Capillary beds
        
        Functions: network of capillaries in tissue or organs
    - - Single circulation
        
        Blood travels through body and back to starting point (loop)
        
        Ex: sharks,stingrays, bonyfish
        
        2 chamber heart
        
        Atrium
        
        Ventricle
        
        Blood travels through 2 capillary beds before returning to heart
        
        Blood pressure drops
      - Double circulation
        
        Pump of 2 circuits are combined at the heart
        
        Circuit #1 (right side) pumps O2 poor blood to capillary beds of the gas exchange tissues when O2 enters blood and CO2 leave blood
        
        Process called Pulmonary circuit
        
        Gas exchange takes place in the lungs
        
        Processed called pulmocutaneous for amphibians
        
        Gas exchange in lungs and skin
        
        Circuit #2 (left side) O2 rich blood from gas exchange tissues to capillary bed in organs/tissues throughout body
        
        Process called systemic circuit
        
        Benefits of double system
        
        Provides vigorous flow of blood to brain, muscles and other organs bc heart repressurizes blood after passing thru cap.beds of lungs and skin
- - - - Goes through pulmonary arteries
        
        Thru cap.bed in both lungs, loading O2 and unloading CO2
        
        O2 rich blood returns from lungs to left atrium of heart
        
        5.Blood leaves left ventricle thru the aorta
        
        Aorta conveys blood to arteries throughout body. First branch from aorta are the coronary arties, supplying blood to heart
        
        Branches lead to cap.beds in head and arms then goes towards abdomen supplying O2 rich blood to arteries
        
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  - - - One complete cycle is called Cardiac cycle
        
        Systole: contraction phase of the cycle
        
        Diastole: relaxation phase of cycle
      - Cardiac Output: Vol of blood each ventricle pumps per min
        
        Factor 1: heart rate
        
        Rate of contraction (beats per min)
        
        Factor 2: stroke volume
        
        Amount of blood pumped by ventricle in single contraction
        
        Avg stroke Vol is 70mL
    - - Atroventricular valve (AV): b/t each atrium and ventricle
        
        Keeps blood from flowing back into atria
      - Semilunar valves: located at exits of the heart
        
        Where pulmonary artery leaves right ventricle and where aortas leaves left ventricle
      - Heart murmur
        
        Causes blood squirts backwards through a defective valve
    - - Sets rate and timing when heart muscle cells contract by sending electrical impulses like nerve cells
        
        Hormones secreted thru blood can affect pacemaker; fight-or-flight (secreted by adrenal gland) can speed up the pacemaker
      - EKG: electrodes placed on skin record currents, measuring electrical activity of heart. Also shows stage of the cardiac cycle
- - - - Ex: blue pigment hemocyanin
      - Most invertebrates and all vertebrates respiratory pigment is hemoglobin
        
        Bohr shift
        
        CO2 reacts with water forming carbonic acid thus lowering pH of it’s surrounding
        
        Low pH dec affinity of hemoglobin for O2
    - - Increase greatly the amount of O2 they can be carried in circulatory fluid
- - - - Descending limb of the loop of henle
        
        Ascending limb of loop of henle
        
        Distal tubule
        
        Collecting duct :
        
        Processes the filtrate into urine, which carries to renal pelvis
        
        Regulates K+ and NaCl concentration of body fluids
        
        Has transport epithelium that lacks water channels
        
        Aquaporin: first portion of loop, descending limb, numerous water channels; makes protein transport in epithelium freely permeable to water
  - - - Energy expanded in active transport to facilitate exchange of materials and make concentration gradients
    - - Combo of nervous and hormonal controls manages osmoregulatory function of mammalian kideny
      - Antidiuretic hormone
        
        Aka: vasopressin
        
        Molecules released from posterior pituitary bind to and activate membrane receptors on surface of collecting duct cells
      - Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
        
        ADH release due to response to inc in blood osmolarity
        
        When body is dehydrated,will reduce blood vol w/o inc osmolarity
        
        Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)
        
        Regulates kidney functions
        
        Response to drop in blood vol and pressure by inc H2O and Na+ reabsorption
        
        Helps maintain body fluid osmolarity at set point by stimulating Na+ reabsorption
        
        Involves in the juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGS)
        
        Specialized tissue consisting of cells of/around after entering arteries
        
        Supplies blood to glomerulus
        
        When BP or blood vol drops in affernt arterioles, JGA releases the enzyme renin
        
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        Both inc water reabsorption in kidneys
        
        Lower blood Ana+ concentration thru water reabsorption in kidney
        
        Atrial natriuretic peptides (ANP)
        
        Opposes the RAAS
        
        Inhibits release of renin from the JGA, inhibits NaCl reabsorption by collecting ducts, and reduces aldosterone release from adrenal glands
- - - - Common in aquatic species
      - Terrestrial animals and marine species don’t have access to enough water to continuously excrete ammonia
        
        Urea
        
        Nitrogenous waste
        
        Product of energy consuming metabolic cycle Combines ammonia with CO2 in liver
        
        Low toxicity
  - - - Nontoxic and doesn’t dissolve in water
      - Requires more energy then ammonia
    - - Waste match to environment
- - - - Positive pressure breathing
        
        Inflating lungs with forced airflow down trachea
        
        When male frogs puff up they disrupt this breathing cycle
    - - Negative pressure breathing
        
        Pulling air into lungs through nostril and releasing through mouth
        
        Volume of air inhale and exhale with each breath is called tidal volume
        
        Max tidal volume is called Vital capacity
        
        Air that remains after force exhalation is called is residual volume
        
        Diaphragm
        
        Sheet of skeleton muscle forms bottom wall of cavity
        
        Similar to a plunger being drawn out of a syringe motion
    - - Medulla oblongata
        
        Responsible for breathing regulation ( breathing control centers that establish breathing rhythm)
        
        Negative feedback mechanism
        
        Prevents lungs from overexpanding
        
        Use PH of fluid to determine blood CO2 concentration
        
        main way to determine a pH of cerebrospinal fluid around brain and spinal cord