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What The Romans Did For Us (Invasion (The standard legionary was very well…
What The Romans Did For Us
Invasion
First contact was Julius Caesar in 55 and 54 BCE, but he only established a small beachhead
The permanent invasion was in May 43 AD, under the emperor Claudius
40,000 troops were sent, but they nearly mutinied in Boulogne
They were terrified of Britain, as it was the edge of the known world, and there was a lot of superstition around it
They were brought in line only by a direct order from Claudius
Their landing at Richborough (Rutupiae) was largely unopposed- the sea has actually receded from the Roman shoreline
The tribal resistance had gone home due to the delay in France
The Romans were very frightened of them due to Caesar's accounts
They then dug a ditch to protect their supplies-first mark on British soil.
Roman forces pushed through Kent, and Claudius came with an elephant to accept the surrender of Camulodunum
The invasion was crucial to Claudius as a way to cement his power as emperor- the elephants were used to inspire awe
Hannibal used elephants to ambush the Romans across the Alps
Dover was built as a port to get supplies into Britain- two lighthouses were built either side of it to guide ships in at night, the cliffs by day.
2nd legion, lead by
Vespasian
advanced towards Cornwall
They encountered lots of tribes like the Durotriges, who lived in Iron Age hillforts (15m ramparts)
Battle of Maiden Castle- Skeleton with a square hole in his skull is evidence of ballista usage
Hodd hill- the Romans built a siege tower to attack the chieftain's hut, 150m away, which was found with a mass of bolts outside it
5 legions (about 20,000 men) and the rest were mostly conscripts (cavalry)
The standard legionary was very well equipped, carrying about 30 kg (same as modern soldier)
Cassius (helmet) was very well designed, with flaps around the cheeks and neck, and a ridge above the eyes (comfortable as well)
Gladius-short stabbing sword; pilum, javelin with an untempered shaft so it would bend on impact (preventing re-use) and also a small knife
Lorica sigmata (breastplate) had flexible shoulders, but was still very heavy
Heavy, curved, wooden shield with a metal boss to bash people and deflect weapons
Sandals with hobnails for grip
Had different formations for different purposes;"V" for a driving attack; testudo for defence against arrows
There is evidence that their forts were pre-fabricated. built from a standardised blueprint
The Romans had very effective artillery, mostly powered by the torsion of twisted ropes
Ballista- like a large crossbow. The standard design, the Scorpion, fired one bolt at a time but there is an account of a repeating version in literature
Onager-simple catapult that hurled rocks (more psychological than anything else
Auxiliaries and cavalry may have worn chain mail, but not for certain
The cavalry's horses were often stolen from neighbouring tribes
They had a sparta, like a longer gladius, and specialised with lumps around the legs to give grip (no stirrups)
They were very competitive and had to be athletic, as they were often used in flanking movements
The ships were based off the Greek design, with banks of rowers, a simple sail and two steering awls (they would have used small landing craft to get on shore)
Ahead of their time
In the 3rd Century, troops where withdrawn, so the Saxons attacked
By the 4th Century, all frontiers were being attacked, so Rome was under great stress
They had also stopped innovating, and so were constantly outmanoeuvred
A book from that period, De Rebus Militaris, details all sorts of possible military technologies, like a floating goat-skin bridge, but it is not known if they were ever used
In response, the Romans built the Saxon Shore Forts, the first consolidated defence network :
The Walls at Portchester were used for more than a thousand years
The Roman's buildings owe longevity to concrete (effectively flints suspended in lime mortar
They also used arches proliferously, far stronger than the Greek "lintels"
In general, the Greeks had the idea, but the Romans put them to practical usage, refining them
Lime mortar was made by 1) Heating limestone in kiln to make quicklime
2)Reacting it with water to make hydrated lime
3)Adding 3-parts sand
(Adding volcanic ash would make it set much quicker, even underwater)
Did originally set very slowly, but was still very widely used.
They could travel far up river estuaries due to their flat bottomed boats, and attacked undefended settlements.
People were forced to accept a new, vassal form of government
To subdue the, they were given lots of "food and circuses, to show the benefits of Roman occupation
They went to well-organised, public entertainment. This was actually often in the streets.
The Romans did have a lot of automata, like moving lions -Hero of Alexander is a famous inventor of these (aeolipile)
Amphitheatre was a military training ground for most of the year, and was opened to the public for hunts and rare gladiator bouts.
There is evidence of a spring-powered slot machine being used here, to dispense water (washing was a part of many rituals.
Gladiators were very religious, and nearly always visited shrines before their bouts
By the mid 4th Century, 175 days a year were public holidays
Building Britain
Britain before invasion was divided into 18 kingdoms, hill forts surrounded by tiny agricultural communities
They lived in large, circular houses
Farmed and raised livestock, made a comfortable living but also
an excess (evidence of trade between Britannia and Gaul predates the invasion)
Despite this, they needed to produce far more to feed occupying legions. so the Romans...
Drained marshes to make more farmland
Improved the Celtic plough (ard)
Added iron ploughshare, which allowed it to cut through heavier soul (so the North could be farmed more effectively)
Added wheels to make it easier to use
Introduced intensive farming and new crops, such as carrots and turnips
They also improved other tools, such as the billhook-added blade on the back made it much more multipurpose
A "predecessor"of the Swiss army knife has been found, made of silver
As a result of this new surplus, some Celts could go to the army camps to cater to the well-payed legionaries
This in turn helped the development of these
vici
, some of which became the first real cities in Britain
Timber frames, wattle-and-daub walls and thatch roofs
York is a Viking settlement, but actually has its roots in the Romans-then Eboracum, it was capital of Northern Britannia
Minster of York is on top of the Roman basilica
Crypts contain evidence of Roman walls and roads, as well as a still-functional drainage ditch
Remains of a caldarium can be found in "The Roman Bath" pub's basement
Was strategically placed in the middle of Brigantes territory
Each town followed the same layout/blueprint of streets
This forms one of Rome's most lasting legacies
Another distinctive feature of Roman architecture is a decorative orange band in the middle of a wall
A lot of attention was paid to sewers
Various objects, dropped by accident, have been found- lady's gold earring, gaming counters etc.
Very large- around 7000 litres of material/day
Legionaries built them with pride- their stamps have been found in the brickwork/concrete
Have specially shaped concave corner stones
There is evidence of high-rise buildings elsewhere in the empire, and street lighting
By AD 100, the rich had panes of glass, method not definitively known
(Mark Taylor) flattened disk of glass kept hot and flexible whilst it is stretched and pulled into shape (produces same distinctive tool marks on the edges)
Romans then adapted glass blowing for mass production
Produces a clearer, larger, thinner pane of glass, with fewer bubbles
Romans had fast-food (incl. burgers), cafes and snack bars
Fire was a very big hazard for most cities (mostly built from wood)
There were a band of brave slaves called the "
Familia Publica"
who used buckets to fight fires
They did sometimes demand money before beginning their work
There is some evidence of a pump, found in a well- could be a fire engine (Henry Russel", but far from definite.
Emperor Nero ordered that every household have a primitive fire extinguisher made of egg whites and vinegar
Trade/Roads
Roman roads were very straight, even when the destination wasn't clear
They used a beacon-based survey method (which also defends the surveyors, legionaries themselves)
Each surveyor had a
groma
, with which they lined up a beacon, and then checked the one behind (lots of adjustment needed)
Road engineers averaged about 1 mile/3-4 days, as they were very efficient professionals
Ackling Dyke
- an overgrown Roman road, cuts straight through Iron Age
burial mounds
The Romans never used curved roads- they did use angled-off dog-legs to avoid obstacles though
The roads were very important for the movement of troops, but also for
collecting taxes
The grid of roads was used to work out how much land each farmer owed- the roads had
milestones
Roman mile was 1000 paces (standardised
by a pacing stick
)
Romans used an
odometer
, which counted out paces with cogs and gears and dropped a pebble in a box each mile- design by
Vetruvius
The Romans came to Britain to access the raw materials there
In return, the Britons got access to the Romans' vast markets and luxuries, made from those materials (i.e. Samian pottery)
Hortus Rutupiae
- the original landing site, became a very important port, connected to Londinium and Deva by Watling street
Triumphal arch built over the road, right on the quayside
Britain was rich in gold (Wales), iron oxide (Cumbria) and lead (galinium ore
In particular, the Romans needed gold to
stabilise the economy
They cleared hillsides with huge floods to reveal gold seams
Original Roman tunnels still exist, dug by the very lowest of slaves
Gold was taken straight back to Rome
Or minted into coins by the treasury
Could be made into jewellry
There is evidence of an extensive system of aqueducts and tanks needed to supply the water to do this
Celts had been panning it before then (very inefficient)
Life of Luxury
The Romans brought over many foods, such as turnips, celery, carrots, apples, pears, asparagus and
grapes
There is evidence of vineyards from that period in Britain
Wine production was very widespread; the Romans brought grapes with them wherever they went
Romans invented the screw press because of the inefficacy of the traditional lever press
The screw was invented by an unknown Greek, but Romans used it
Romans used it in many ways- to juice grapes, press olives or even dry clothes
For the wealthy, drinking wine with every meal was probably a small sign of wealth
This is despite the fact that their plumbing did actually provide relatively safe drinking water (from springs)
Main meal for the wealthy was eaten after a bath
Fish was the main course of three (in a normal meal)
Roman cookbook has survived (by Epicurus the gourmand)
250 recipes, with access to a very wide range of flavours
(due to trade/wealth)
Although we think of Tudor mansions as the first stately homes in Britain, arguably Roman villas from the 2nd and 3rd century were more advanced
Typical layout would be- : two floors, with two 3-floor towers at the edges on the front
everything was built in stone
:
The servants/slaves would have lived in the tiled roof
1st floor had main reception rooms, 3 of which had mosaics and hypocaust systems
Mosaics were standard for the wealthy
Fishbourne has lots of mosaics, including some laid over an older design
Most important design was always in the centre of the floor, and the artisan worked outwards from there
He would usually let his minions do the peripheries, as accuracy was less important there
Concept of a "garden for pleasure" was actually inherited from the Romans
It showed status, as most land was needed for agriculture (but the owner has so much money that he doesn't need to)
Bathing was very much a way of life for the Romans
Aquae Sulis
would've been very much like a leisure centre
There is evidence of a pipe that may have carried water under high pressure to the caldarium- whirlpool bath
Furnace heated up water and created hot fumes to go through the floor and walls
Snacks such as wine and oysters were available in the Baths
Aqueducts were often used to supply water to bath complexes from far away
These ranged from simple surface level wooden troughs to the towering structures in Italy and Spain
Having your own was a very big status symbol
Edge of Empire
Soldiers had to bake their own bread
1) Picked out all poisonous seeds
2) Ground it in a quern to produce coarse granary flour (could be sieved for fineness by the rich)
3) Mixed with yeast/beer, olive oil and water
4-baked in a tin (if no bread oven), buried in a fire's ashes
VIndolanda papers-postcards mostly written on veneer-like wood (too damp for papyrus) that survived an attempted destruction
Mostly incoming mail to the commander
But there are some "office copies" of outgoing mail
Like an invitation between commander's wives to a birthday party
Give all sorts of information, and
a very mundane image of life on the wall
mostly requests for food, but also one for socks and pants
Hadrian's wall's construction was finished around 136 AD
It was: 73 miles long (80 R. miles), on the top of a natural ridge
Needed to move 2 million tonnes of material-the work of three legions
5-7 metres high, 2-3 metres thick
Had mile castles every mile to act as defence posts and control the movement of people across the wall
Every 4-8 miles, there was a fort of up to 1000 troops
Fort Arabaea
was a supply depot, a couple miles south of the wall- has a huge number of granaries to supply the frontier guards
There is evidence that shaped stones (previously thought to be catapult munitions) were in fact thrown at the enemy
The ditch surrounding the fought was optimised for this, and also
javelin throwing
Armour and weapons were all in iron, so needed loads of blacksmiths
Also made nails, hinges etc. -anything we can think of that is in metal now
They had a system of beacons and flags to quickly send messages between forts
Had two sets of see-saw like poles, that corresponded to a grid-like key
Could also use a water-clock based system of torches if visibility was poor to send a set group of messages
In cases where there wasn't any clear line of sight, relay towers were used so all forts could be communicated to
Hadrian was a big believer in discipline- an ulterior motive of the wall might be to keep the troops occupied
Tombstones show that the people on the wall came from all over the empire