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Metabolism, Cellular Respiration, and Fermentation (Metabolism (energy…

- - - - Forms of Energy
        
        Kinetic Energy: energy bof motion
        
        Chemical energy: is a term used by biologist to refer to the potential energy available for release in chemical reaction
        
        Potential energy: is energy that is stored
        
        Thermal energy: is kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or moleclues
    - - Laws of Themodynamics
        
        First Law of Thermodynamics; the energy of the universe is constant: Energy cannot be created or destroyed but can be transferred or transformed
        
        Second Law of Thermodynamics: Every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe
        
        Entropy: measure of molecular disorder, or randomness
    - - the portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in a living cell.
      - Exergonic Reaction
        
        proceeds with a net release of free energy " Energy Outside"
      - Endergonic Reaction
        
        One that absorbs free energy from its surrounds " Energy Inside"
    - - The cell's energy shuttle
        
        Hydrolysis of its terminal phosphate yields ADP and pi and release free energy
      - Energy Coupling: the exergonic process of ATP hydrolysis drives an endergonic one
  - - - Activation Energy: the energy necessary to break the bonds of the reactants
    - - the reactant an enzyme acts on is referred to as the enzyme's substrate
      - The enzyme binds to its substrate ( or substrates, when there are two or more reactants), forming an Enzyme- Substrate Complex
      - Active Site: typically a pocket or groove on the surface of the enzyme where catalysis occur.
        
        Induced fit: the tightening of the binding after initial contact.
    - - Competitive Inhibitor: reduce the productivity of enzymes by blocking substrates from entering active sites
      - Noncompetitive inhibitors: do not directly compete with the substrate to bind to the enzyme at the active site
    - - Allosteric regulation: used to describe any case in which a protein's function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate site
      - Cooperativity: binding of one substrate molecule can stimulate binding or activity at other active sites
      - Feedback inhibition: the end product of a metabolic pathway allosterically inhibits the enzyme for a previous step in the pathway.
- - - - pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps
        
        the first step releases carbon dioxide from the pyruvate, which is converted to two- carbon compound acetaldehyde
        
        in the second step, acetaldehyde is reduced by NADH to ethanol
    - - pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactate as an end product, regenerating NAD+ with no release of CO2
- - - - electron transport chain
        
        consists of a number of molecules, mostly protein, built into inner membrane of the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells.
    - - Glycolysis
        
        "spliting of sugars" is a series of reactions that breaks down glucose into two pyruvate molecules, which may go on to enter the citric cycle, and nets 2 ATP and 2NADH per glucose molecule
      - oxidative phosphorylation
        
        During oxidative phosphorylation, chemiosmosis couples electron transport to ATP synthesis
        
        NADH and FADH2 transfer electrons to the electron transport chain. Electrons move down the chain, losing energy in several energy- releasing steps. finally electrons are passed to O2, reducing it to H2O
        
        Proton- motive force
        
        along the electron transport chain, electron transfer causes protein complexes to move H+ from the mitochondrial matrix ( in eukaryotes) to the intermembrane space storing energy
        
        ATP Synthase
        
        H+ diffuses back into the matrix
        
        Chemiosmosis
        
        its passage drives the phosphorylation of ADP to form ATP
        
        About 34% of the energy stores in glucose molecule is transferred to ATP during cellular respiration, producing a maximum of about 32 ATP
      - citric acid cycle
        
        After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid cycle completes the energy -yielding oxidation of organic molecule
        
        In eukaryotic cells, pyruvate enters the mitochondrion and its oxidized to Acetyl CoA which is further oxidized in the citric acid acylce
  - - - total or partial loss of electron
      - oxidizing agent
        
        electron acceptor
        
        NAD+
    - - total pr partial addition of electron
      - reducing agent
        
        electron donor
        
        NADH