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Chapter 8&9 (Fermentation (Aerobic resperation (Reducing Agent…

- - - - In the generalized reaction, substance Xe, the electron donor is called the reducing agent.
      - Oxidizing agent
        
        Substance Y, the electrons acceptor, is the oxidizes Xe by removing is electron, because an electron transfer requires both an electron donor and an acceptor, oxidation and reduction always go hand in head.
        
        Glycolysis
        
        occur in cytosol, begins the degradation process by breaking glucose into two molecule of a compound called Pyruvate.
        
        Oxidative phosphorylation
        
        It is powered by the redox reactions of the election transport chain.
        
        Substrate-level phosphorylation
        
        A smaller amount of ATP is formed directly in a few reactions of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle by a mechanism.
        
        Cytochromes
        
        Most of the remaining electron carries between ubiquinone and oxygen are protection called cytochromes.
        
        Protons-motive force
        
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  - - - In a redox reaction, the loss of electrons from one substance is called oxidation, and the addition of electrons to another substance is known as reduction.
  - - - Carry out only fermentation or anaerobic respiration.
      - Facultative anaerobes
        
        other organisms, including yeasts and many bacteria , can make enough ATO to survive using either fermentation or respiration.
- - - - Kinetic energy associated with the random movement of atoms or molecules.
      - Heat
        
        Thermal energy in transfer from one object to another is called heat. Light is also a type of energy that can be harnesses to harnesses to perform work, such as powering photosynthesis in green plants.
        
        Potential Energy
        
        An object not presently moving may still possess energy energy. Energy that is not kinetic is called potential energy. It is energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure.
        
        Chemical Energy
        
        A term used by biologists to refer to the potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction.
  - - - The energy of the universe is constant: Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed. The first law is known is also known as the principle of conservation of energy.
      - Second law of thermodynamics
        
        Energy energy transfer or transformation in increase the entropy of the universe.
        
        Free Energy
        
        The portion of a system's energy that can perform work when temperature and pressure are uniform throughout the system, as in living cell.
        
        equilibrium
        
        Another term that describes a state of maximum stability is equilibrium. A process is spontaneous and can perform work only when it moving toward equilibrium.
        
        Exergonic reaction
        
        Proceeds with with a net release of free energy. Because the chemical mixture loses free energy (G decreases), G is negative for an exergonic reaction. Using G as a standard for spontaneity, exergonic reactions are those that occur spontaneously.
        
        endergonic reaction
        
        One that absorbs free energy from its surroundings because this kind of reaction essentially stores free energy in molecules (G increases), G is positive.
        
        Energy coupling
        
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        The fact that metabolism as a whole is never at equilibrium is one of the defining features of life.
- - - - A substrate molecule binding to one active site in a multisubunit enzyme triggers a shape change in all the subunit, thereby increasing catalytic activity at the other active sites called cooperatively. This mechanism amplifies the response of enzymes to substrates: one substrate molecule binding site increase the affinity for oxygen of the remaining binding sites.
      - Feedback Inhibition
        
        ATP generated by ATP itself. A metabolic pathway is halted by inhibitory binding of its end product to an enzyme that acts early in the pathway.
  - - - A clasping handshake. The tightening of the binding after initial contact.
      - Cofactors
        
        bound tightly to the enzyme as permanent residents, or they may bind loosely and reversibly along with the substrate.
        
        Coenzyme
        
        if the cofactor in an organic molecule, it is referred to, more specifically, as a coenzyme.
        
        competitive inhibitors
        
        Reduce the productivity of enzymes by blocking substrates from entering active sites.
        
        Noncompetitive Inhibitors
        
        Do no directly compete with the substrate to bind to the enzyme at the active site.
        
        Allosteric regulation
        
        The term used to describe any case in which a protein's function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate site.