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chapter 51-53 (chapter 53 (levels of animal behavior and learning…

- - - - a cross fostering study found that some behavior in mice is learned from parents and some is innate to the mouse because of their species
    - - associative learning
        
        the ability to associate one's environment with a feature
        
        for example the bluejay that barfs up a monarch and won't eat them in the future
        
        classical conditioning -stimulus is associated with a particular outcome
        
        operant conditioning -a behavior is associated with a reward or punishment
        
        some animals can only make particular associations with particular senses, this reflects relationships that occur in nature
      - cognition and problem solving
        
        cognition -involves awareness, reasoning, recollection and judgement
        
        in an experiment with a y shaped maze, bees were showed to be able to relate similarity of color and similarity of pattern
        
        problem solving -devising a solution in the face obstacles, intuition
        
        like the chimpanzee that stacks boxes to get to a banana
      - spatial learning and cognitive maps
        
        spatial learning -memory that reflects environment's structure
        
        a digger wasp locates its nest by this memory,
        
        when Tinbergen experimented with moving a ring of pinecones around it's nest, the wasp was unable to find it
        
        a representation in an animal's nervous system of its spatial memory
        
        Clark's nutcracker remembers where its seeds are based on half the distance between landmarks
      - development of learned behaviors
        
        some learned behaviors develop gradually
        
        such as bird fledglings that learn birdsongs from others of their species during a critical period
      - imprinting
        
        long lasting response to a particular individual or object during sensitive period
        
        greylag geese define mother as an object moving away from them
        
        they have imprinted on humans
      - social learning
        
        learning of animals through observing others
        
        such as monkeys learning to use rocks to crack nuts
        
        vervet monkeys learn the correct alarm signals from others of their tribes
  - - - optimal foraging model
        
        genes change for population density, so in densely populated areas animals can travel longer for food
        
        as in the laboratory populations of drosophila flies
        
        evolution favors behavior that has low cost and high benefit
      - balancing risk and reward
        
        animals forage based on the benefit of eating and the risk of predation
        
        like the mule deer that graze in open areas
      - foraging -eating, recognizing and capturing food items
    - - mating systems and parental care
        
        mates stay together or not depending on the need of the young. if the young don't need much raising, the male will leave. if they require extensive care, the couple will stay together
        
        males stay to help take care depending on certainty of paternity
      - sexual selection and mate choice
        
        mate choice by females
        
        mate choice depends on special features that reflect a healthy male
        
        mate choice can be the result of imprinting
        
        as in the expirement with zebra finches, where females developed taste for males based on their fathers
        
        mate choice copying -when a female's mate choice is influenced by the choice of others
        
        male competition for mates
        
        agonistic behavior, males compete with one another for mates
      - mating systems and dimorphism
        
        different relationships
        
        monogamous -one male and one female
        
        polygamous -multiple of one sex
        
        polygany -single male and multiple females
        
        polyandry single female and multiple males
        
        promiscuous
        
        no lasting bonds
        
        sexual dimporphism nonessential differences between genders depending on mating system
    - - one genetic tendency is dominant over another in a loop, like a game of rock paper scissors
  - - - regular, long distance change in location
        
        some animals can map their position relative to the sun and change for time of day
        
        homing pigeons sense their position relative to the earth's magnetic field
    - - circadian rythme is a cycle of daily rest and activity, synchronized with light and dark cycles
      - circannual rhythms are for a yearly cycle of seasons, influenced by periods of daylight and darkness
      - some are linked to the lunar cycle
    - - a sequence of unlearned acts linked to a specific stimulus, called a sign stimulus
    - - pheremones
        
        pheromones in honeybee colonies maintain complex social order
        
        they can also be alarm signals
        
        like with minnows responding to skin or blood in the water
        
        animal communication through odors or tastes
      - related to the animals environment
      - stimulus response chain -each stimulus is the stimulus for the next behavior, for example drosophila fruit flies
      - the bee waggle dance can communicate complicated messages about newfound flower sources
    - - How does an animals experience influence the behavior
      - What stimulus causes it and what physical mechanisms allow it to happen?
      - What is its evolutionary history?
      - how does the behavior aid survival and reproduction?
  - - - in fruit flies, a single fru gene dictates the whole courtship ritual
      - sometimes mating behavior varies because of a product of genes
        
        for example moles from different places are influenced in their mating behavior by a neurotransmitter vasopressin
    - - variation in prey selection
        
        in a study, garter snakes from a coastal habitat had a genetic predisposition for eating banana slugs
    - - an animal benefiting others at a cost to itself
        
        such as a ground squirrel calling to warn others of predators, even though it increases the chances of getting eaten itself
        
        or the naked mole rats, whose colony members do not reproduce and sacrifice themselves to protect their queen
    - - hamilton's rule and kin selection
        
        Cost-C
        
        coefficient of relatedness -r
        
        rB > C
        
        when the relatedness and the benefit are greater than the cost, then an animal will commit an act of altruism
        
        benefit -B
      - reciprocal altruism
        
        when an animal helps another because of it's chance of helping it back
      - parents sacrifice for their offspring. in inclusive fitness animals sacrifice for their relatives
  - - - Associate one stimuli with another
        
        Pavlov's dogs
    - - Taught complex behavior
        
        Crow vending machine
    - - Happens during critical period during life
        
        Baby geese following scientist
    - - Same stimuli over and over until ignored
        
        Prairie dogs used to humans sea anemone not eating plastic
    - - series of action in response to stimuli
        
        Geese pulling pool ball intonest
    - - Watching another organism
        
        Octupi learning to open bottles
    - - Instinct animals are born with
        
        Sea turtle babies going to sea
    - - Figuring out something not obvious
        
        Chimp climbing crates for banana
- - - - hot air rises and cold air sinks, creating areas of high and low pressure that wind travels toward
        
        this causes there to be three wind cells from the equator to the north pole
      - the rotation of the earth pulls the wind from traveling straight north or south and they instead travel diagonally across the earth
      - because of the earth's round shape, sunlight hits it more directly at the equator, and gradually less directly further from the equator
    - - earth's tilt causes the north hemisphere to point more directly at the sun during summertime, causing the days to be longer and the weather to be hotter
        
        while the southern hemisphere experiences the opposite
        
        during the winter the northern hemisphere receives more slanted sunlight, so it is colder and the days are shorter
        
        during spring and fall, the earth is evenly heated, but gradually changing from one side of the cycle to the other
    - - mountains
        
        Rainshadow -when warm moist air flows toward a mountain (usually from the south toward a north-south facing mountain range) , the air rises and cools, causing all the water to rain out on the south side of the mountain. Then it blows dry over the other side. This causes a lush forest on one side and a desert on the other
        
        they also effect the amount of sunlight reaching an area
        
        they can also cause high elevation communities that look like northern or arctic communities
      - microclimate
        
        fine localized climate conditions
        
        such as shade under a tree, low lying wet ground, a sheltering log
      - water
        
        cause coastal regions to have a wetter climate.
        
        Warmth carried by currents can change the temperature in an area
        
        Because of the high specific heat, it can regulate the temperature of coastal regions
      - biotic -living factors
        
        abiotic -nonliving
  - - - terrestrial biomes are named for their predominant vegetation
    - - often biomes depend on periodic disturbance such as storm, fire, and human activity.
    - - general patterns of temperature and moisture are the major factors of terrestrial biomes
    - - chapparral
        
        hot summers, cool other seasons
        
        shrubs, small trees, adapted to water loss and fire
        
        wet 30-50 cm
        
        deer, goats, birds reptiles insects
        
        midlatitude coastal regions
      - grassland
        
        cold winters, hot summers
        
        grasses, forbs, fire resistant
        
        dry winters wet summers
        
        bison, horses, small burrowing animals
        
        center of land masses
      - savanna
        
        warm year round
        
        scattered trees, drought and fire resistant grass
        
        30-50 cm
        
        large plant eaters + predators, termites
        
        above and below equator
      - coniferous forest
        
        cold winters, sometimes hot summers
        
        conifers +shrub and herb layer
        
        30-70 cm
        
        migratory bird, diverse, moose, bears, tigers
        
        broad band across north america and eurasia
      - desert
        
        hot, or extremely cold
        
        low, scattered vegetation, drought resistant with spiny defenses
        
        dry
        
        reptiles, insects, birds, small rodents
        
        30 degrees north and south of equator
      - deciduous forest
        
        cold winter, hot summer
        
        decidous trees of eucalyptus
        
        70-200 cm
        
        midlatitudes near northern hemisphere
        
        migrating birds, hibernating mammals, insects
      - tropical forest
        
        diverse, high trees and different layers
        
        diverse
        
        wet (or sometimes dry)
        
        hot
        
        in and around equator
      - tundra
        
        cold
        
        moss, grass, forbs, shrubs, permafrost inhibits larger roots
        
        20-60 cm
        
        grazing animals and predators
        
        extremely high latitudes and tops of mountains
  - - - abyssal zone -2000 or more m below the ocean
      - benthic zone -bottom of ocean made of sand and sediments
      - pelagic -photic and aphotic together
      - benthos -occupants of benthic zone
      - aphotic -there is not enough light for photosynthesis
      - detritus -falls from photic zone and feeds benthic zone
      - photic -region where there is enough light for photosynthesis
      - thermocline -abrupt layer of temperature change in lakes
    - - estuaries
        
        levees, islands, channels and mudflats caused by flow of river and tide
        
        grass algae and phytoplankton
        
        varies with salinity, nutrients from river
        
        oysters, worms crabs, fish; breeding ground for fish, feeding for birds
        
        transition between river, sea water and freshwater
      - intertidal zones
        
        rocky or sandy, waves
        
        algae, more in protected zones
        
        high O2 replenished by tides
        
        worms, clams, crustaceans, anemones, echinoderms, small fish, differs depending on how close to sea
        
        submerged by tides twice daily
      - streams and rivers
        
        rocky or silty, shallow or deep
        
        phytoplankton of aquatic plants
        
        O2 near headwaters, organic matter from forests
        
        fish
        
        flowing slow or fast
      - pelagic zone
        
        deep and wide
        
        phytoplankton, more in spring
        
        high O2, low nutrients, turnover
        
        zooplankton; worms, krill, jellies, small invertebrates and fishes that feed on them; free swimming animals such as squids, fish, sea turtles (sharks!)
        
        open blue water mixed by wind and currents
      - wetlands
        
        water plants, woody plants, and mosses
        
        birds, crustaceans, larvae, muskrats, aligators, otters etc
        
        filled in lakes or ponds, sides of rivers, lakes or seas
        
        low O2, filter nutrients or pollutants
        
        water saturated soil
      - coral reefs
        
        solid thing for corals to attach
        
        algae in corals and other places
        
        high O2 levels, fresh water and nutrients
        
        high diversity, many cnidarians
        
        skeletons of corals, shallow and near islands, sometimes deep
      - lakes
        
        rooted and floating plants in the shallow, bacteria in the middle
        
        ogliotroph -nutrient poor, oxygen rich, Eutrophic -nutrient rich, oxygen poor
        
        zooplankton, fish depending on oxygen
        
        can be small or big, light decreases with depth, thermocline
        
        oligotrophic has more depth and less surface area
      - marine benthic zone
        
        soft sediments, mountains, reefs or new oceanic crust
        
        seaweed, algae, chemoautotrophic prokaryotes near hydrothermal vents
        
        sufficient O2
        
        fish and invertabrates, tube worms, arthropods and echinoderms near hydrothermal vents
        
        deep sea, near or far from shore, the more depth, the colder, more pressure and less O2
- - - - a birth rate or death rate that does not change with population density
      - a random catastrophe such as a flood or tsunami or fire
    - - mechanisms
        
        for example, too many perch did not have enough kelp to hide in and were more vulnerable to predators
        
        predation -if the prey animal multiplies a lot, predators will eat more of them, resulting in more predators and less prey (like with the snowshoe bunny and lynx)
        
        territoriality -when individuals compete for space
        
        disease -a crowded population is more likely to spread disease
        
        intrinsic factors -drop in reproduction at high population (like with the white footed mice)
        
        competition for resources
        
        toxic wastes -too many organisms become poisonous for themselves (such as yeast producing alcohol)
      - pop dynamics
        
        pop cycles
        
        some populations go through regular cycles of rising and falling, like the snowshoe hares and lynxes rising and falling with each other over the course of 10 years
        
        immigration, emigration, metapopulations
        
        metapopulation -a number of local populations linked through immigration and emmigration
        
        such as the glanville butterflies across the aland islands
        
        stability and fluctuation
        
        populations fluctuate over time because of many density dependent factors
        
        such as the population of mooses on isle royale fluctuating because of wolves, weather, and other factors
  - - - the human population has grown explosively since the industrial revolution, it increases by about 78 million people a year
    - - stable populations can have a high birth high death, or a low birth low death
      - countries such as sweden, Germany, Japan and China are starting to have fewer births
      - in countries where there is less death, they have started having fewer births as well
    - - age structure diagrams look like a pyramid with gender on each side and youngest on the bottom
        
        countries with slow growth have a rectangle shaped pyramid with a peak at the top
        
        countries with no growth have a fairly thin bottom and thin top with a thick band by the middle aged people
        
        countries with rapid growth have an age structure that looks like a triangle, with a thick bottom and a thin top
    - - infant mortality rate is deaths per 1000 babies born
        
        in Afghanistan it is 149, while in japan it is 2.8
      - global life expectancy has been increasing although it has dropped in regions full of war and disrest
    - - estimates
        
        it is very difficult to estimate, guesses have ranged from less than 1 billion to 1 trillion
      - limits
        
        ecological footprint -the land and water needed to sustain a person, city or nation
        
        scientists asses this using gha or energy use,
        
        possible limiting factors are food, water, fuel, building materials
        
        the book ends the chapter by threatening us to attain zero population growth or face the consequences.....
  - - - changes in pop size
        
        Change in pop size=births+immigrants-deaths-emigrants
        
        change in population size/change in time=births-deaths
      - exponential growth
        
        pop growth in an unlimited environment looks like an exponential curve
      - ecologist study population growth in an unlimited environment
    - - logistic growth model
        
        changes the equation for exponential growth so that the graph levels off instead of increasing indefinitely
        
        for example the number of paramecium in a culture in the lab
      - real populations
        
        some populations, such as the daphnia population in a lab, will shoot up above the carrying capacity because their females keep reproducing after they run out of food
        
        these models are used to predict whether a species is endangered
      - the maximum population number the environment can sustain