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PHONOLOGY (The physics and physiology of speech. (Study how the human body…

- - - - Consonants sounds
        
        We form them by controlling or impeding the egressive (outward) flow of air with the articulators - from the glottis, past the velum, the hard palate, the alveolar ridge and the tongue, to the teeth and lips. The saund results from 3 things:
        
        • voicing – causing the vocal cords to vibrate (some consonants are voiced and some not).
        
        • where the articulation happens
        
        Articulation described by region
        
        • Glottal articulation – articulation by the glottis.
        
        • Velar articulation – we do this with the back of the tongue against the velum.
        
        • Palatal articulation – we do this with the front of the tongue on the hard palate.
        
        • Alveolar articulation – we do this with the tongue blade on the alveolar ridge.
        
        • Dental articulation – we do this with the tip of the tongue on the back of the upper front teeth.
        
        • Labio-dental articulation – we do this with the lower lip and upper front teeth.
        
        • Labial articulation – we do this with the lips for /b/ (as in boat) and /m/ (as in most).
        
        • how the articulation happens – how the airflow is controlled
        
        Articulation described by manner
        
        Fricatives
        
        come from restricting, but not completely stopping, the airflow. The air passes through a
        narrow space and the sound arises from the friction this produces.
        
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        Nasals
        
        involve closing the articulators but lowering the uvula, which normally closes off
        the route to the nose, through which the air escapes.
        
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        Affricates
        
        are a kind of stop consonant, where the expelled air causes friction rather than plosion.
        
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        Lateral
        
        It allows the air to escape at the sides of the tongue. In English there is only one
        such sound, which is alveolar /l/
        
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        Stop consonants
        
        (because the airflow is stopped) or plosive consonants (because it is subsequently
        released, causing an outrush of air and a burst of sound)
        
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        Approximants
        
        They do not impede the flow of air. They are all voiced but are counted as consonants
        chiefly because of how they function in syllables.
        
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      - Vowels sounds (all vowels must be voiced – they are caused by vibration in the vocal cords)
        
        Long vowels:
        
        iː - cream, seen (front vowel)
        
        ʒː - burn, firm (central vowel)
        
        ɑː - hard, far (back vowel)
        
        ɔː - corn, faun (back vowel)
        
        uː - boob, glue (back vowel)
        
        Diphthongs:
        
        Are sounds that begin as one vowel and end as another, while gliding between them:
        
        aɪ - spice, pie
        
        ɛɪ - wait, fate
        
        ɔɪ - toy, joy
        
        əʊ - oats, note
        
        aʊ - clown, vow
        
        ɔə - bored, poured
        
        ɪə - deer, pier
        
        ɛə - hair, bear
        
        ʊə - cure, fuel
        
        Short vowels:
        
        ɪ - bit, silly (front vowel)
        
        ɛ - bet, head (front vowel)
        
        æ - cat, dad (front vowel)
        
        ɒ - dog, rotten (back vowel)
        
        ʌ - cut, nut (central vowel)
        
        ʊ - put, soot (back vowel)
        
        ə - about, clever (central vowel)