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COGNITION (THINKING (CONCEPT (Natural Concepts - form as a result of…

- - - - Trial and Error (Mechanical Solution) - problem solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful one is found.
      - Algorithms - very specific, step-by-step procedures for solving certain types of problems.
      - Heuristic - an educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem. Also known as a “rule of thumb.”
        
        Availability Heuristic - estimating the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or how easy it is for us to think of related examples.
        
        Working Backwards - A useful heuristic that does work much of the time is to work backward from the goal.
        
        Representativeness Heuristic - assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the mem- bers of a particular category is also a member of that category.
        
        Subgoaling - Sometimes it’s better to break a goal down into subgoals so that as each sub- goal is achieved, the final solution is that much closer.
      - Insight - When the solution to a problem seems to come suddenly to mind, it is called insight.
    - - Mental Set - the tendency for people to persist in using problem-solving patterns that have worked for them in the past.
        
        Hindsight Bias - the tendency to falsely believe, through revision of older memories to include newer information, that one could have correctly predicted the out- come of an event.
      - Confirmation Bias - the tendency to search for evidence that fits one’s beliefs while ignoring any evidence that does not fit those beliefs.
      - Functional Fixedness - a block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects in terms of only their typical functions.
- - - - Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis - This hypothesis assumes that the thought processes and concepts within any culture are determined by the words of the culture
- - - - Validity - the degree to which a test actually measures what it’s supposed to measure.
      - Standardization - refers to the process of giving the test to a large group of people that represents the kind of people for whom the test is designed.
      - Reliability - the tendency of a test to produce the same scores again and again each time it is given to the same people.
    - - Stanford Binet Test - Lewis Terman, a researcher at Stanford University, adopted German psychologist William Stern’s method for comparing mental age and chronological age for use with the translated and revised Binet test. Stern’s formula was to divide the mental age by the chronologi- cal age and multiply the result by 100 to get rid of any decimal points. The result- ing score is called an intelligence quotient, or IQ.
      - Wechsler Test - a series of IQ tests designed for specific age groups.
        
        WISC - Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
        
        WPPSI Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence
        
        WAIS - Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
  - - - Creative Intelligence - the ability to deal with new and differ- ent concepts and to come up with new ways of solving problems.
      - Practical Intelligence - the ability to use information to get along in life and become successful.
      - Analytical Intelligence - the ability to break problems down into component parts, or analysis, for problem solving.
    - - G Factor (General Intelligence) - the ability to reason and solve problems, or general intelligence.
      - S Factor (Specific Intelligence) - the ability to excel in certain areas, or specific intelligence.
    - - Crystalized Intelligence - represents acquired knowledge and skills.
      - Fluid Intelligence - problem solving and adaptability in unfamiliar situations.