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Approaches (Behaviourism (Focus on observable behaviour only so behaviour…

- - - - Use of non-human animals.Behaviourists suggests the processes that govern learning are the same in all species,so animals can replace humans as experimental subjects.
        
        Classical conditioning:Pavlov.conditioning dogs to salivate when a bell rings:Before conditioning: UCS=food, UCR=salivation, NS=Bell.UCS->UCR.NS->no response.During:Bell and food occur at same time.NS->UCS.After:CS=bell,CR=salivation.CS->CR.=neutral stimulus so bell can come to elicit a new learned response through association.
        
        Operant conditioning:Skinner.Learning is an active process whereby humans and animals operate on their environment.Behaviour is shaped and maintained by its consequence.Rats in specially designed cages,Skinner's boxes.When a rat activate a lever it was rewarded with a food pellet.A desirable consequence led to behaviour being repeated.If pressing a lever meant an animal avoided an electric shock,the behaviour would also be repeated.
        
        Positive reinforcement=receiving a reward when behaviour is perfrormed,makes the likelihood of behaviour being repeated increase.Negative reinforcement=when an animal or human produces behaviour that avoids something unpleasant,increases likelihood of behaviour being repeated.Punishment=an unpleasant consequence of behaviour,decreases likelihood of behaviour being repeated.
        
        Strengths
        
        gave psychology scientific credibility.
        
        The laws of learning developed by behaviourists have real-life application.
        
        Weaknesses
        
        mechanistic view.
        
        form of environmental determinism.
        
        animal research has ethical and practical issues.
- - - - Five psychosexual stages that determine adult personality.Each stage is marked by a different conflict that the child must resolve to move on to the next.Any conflict that is unresolved leads to fixation where the child becomes 'stuck' and carries behaviours associated with that stage through to adult life.
        
        The sequence of stages is fixed:Oral(0-1 year)-pleasure focus=mouth,the mother's breast is the object of desire.Adult fixation=smoke,overeat,bite-nails.Anal(1-3 years)-pleasure focus=anus,the child gains pleasure from withholding and eliminating faeces.Adult fixation=orderliness nessiness.Phallic(3-5 years)-pleasure focus=genital area.Development=oedipus/electra.Adult fixation=social dysfunction.Latency(6-12 years)=earlier conflicts are repressed.Development=socialism skills.Genital(puberty)=sexual desires becomes conscious.
        
        In the phallic stage,little boys develop incestuous feelings towards their mother and a murderous hatred for their father.Later boys repress their feelings for their mother and identify with their father,taking on his gender role and moral values.Girls of the same age experience penis envy.
        
        Defence mechanism to keep id 'in check' and reduce anxiety are used by the ego which are unconscious strategies:Repression-forcing a distressing memory out of the conscious mind.Denial-refusing to acknowledge reality.Displacement-transferring feelings from their true source onto a substitute target.
        
        Strengths
        
        practical applications in the real world
        
        Emphasises the role of parents in raising children
        
        Weaknesses
        
        case study that Freud relied on has been criticised, not generalisable and super biased.
        
        Gender bias on the role of the parents
        
        Unfalsifiable, psychoanalysis can cause false repressed memories to be remembered.No empirical evidence.
- - - - Focus on the self:The self refers to the ideas and values that characterise 'I' and 'me' and includes perception of 'what I am' and 'what I can do'.
        
        Rogers argued that personal growth requires an individual's concept of self to be congruent with their ideal self (the person they want to be).If too big a gap,the person will experience a state of incongruence and self-actualisation isn't possible.
        
        Parents who impose conditions of worth may prevent personal growth.Issues such as worthlessness and low self-esteem have their roots in childhood and are due to a lack of unconditional positive regard from our parents.A parent who sets boundaries on their love for their child (conditions of worth) by claiming 'I will only love you if...' is storing up psychological problems for that child in future.
        
        Has a lasting influence on counselling psychology.In Rogers' client-centred therapy an effective therapist should provide the client with three things:Genuineness,empathy,unconditional positive regard.The aim is to increase feelings of self-worth and reduce incongruence between the self-worth and reduce incongruence between the self-concept and the ideal self.Rogers work transformed psychotherapy.'Non-directive' counselling techniques are practised,not only in clinical settings,but throughout education,health,social work and industry.
        
        Strengths
        
        is anti-reductionist which may make it more meaningful.
        
        Counselling focuses on client:non-directive
        
        Weaknesses
        
        Limited application in the real world.
        
        includes untestable concepts.
        
        unscientific and non falsified
- - - - Mediational (cognitive) processes play a crucial role in learning.4 mediational processes learning:1.Attention-whether behaviour is noticed.2.Retention-whether is remembered.3Motor reproduction-being able to do it.4.Motivation-the will to perform the behaviour.
        
        Identification with role models is important.Children are more likely to imitate the behaviour of people whom they identify with.Such role models are similar to the observer,tend to be attractive and have high status.
        
        Imitation of agression.Bandura:Research 1-children watched either:An adult behaving aggressively towards a Bobo doll.An adult behaving non-aggressively towards a Bobo doll.When given their own doll to play with,the children who had seen aggression were much more aggressive towards the doll.Research 2-children saw adult who was:rewarded or punished or there were no consequence.When their own doll,the children who saw the aggression rewarded were much more aggressive themselves.
        
        Children model aggressive behaviour.The Bobo doll studies suggests that children are likely to imitate acts of violence if they observe these in an adult role model.It is also the case that modelling aggressive behaviour is more likely if such behaviour is seen to be rewarded.
        
        Strengths
        
        Can account cultural differences in behaviour.
        
        Less determinist than behaviourist approach.
        
        Emphasises the importance of cognitive factors in learning.
        
        Weaknesses
        
        relies to heavily on evidence form controlled lab study.
        
        Underestimates the influence of biological factors.
- - - - Use of theoretical models when describing and explaining mental processes.Computer models refer to programmes that can be run on a computer to imitate the human mind.By running such a programme psychologists can test whether their ideas about information processing are correct.
        
        The idea of schema is central to the cognitive approach.Schema are packages of information developed through experience.They act as a 'mental framework' for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system.Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviour such as sucking and grasping.As we get older,our schema become more detailed and sophisticated.
        
        The emergence of cognitive neuroscience.Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence if brain structures on mental processes.With advances in brain scanning technology in the last twenty years,scientists have been able to describe the neurological basis of mental processing.This includes research in memory that has linked episodic and semantic memories to opposite side of the prefrontal cortex in the brain.Scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some disorders.
        
        Strengths
        
        Uses scientific and objective methods.
        
        application to everyday life.
        
        less determinist than other approaches
        
        Weaknesses
        
        based on machine reductionism.
        
        lacks external validity
- - - - The mind and body are one and the same.From a biological perspective,the ind lives in the brain-meaning that all thoughts,feelings and behaviour ultimately have a physical basis.This is in contrast to the cognitive approach which sees the mind as separate from the brain.
        
        Twin studies are used to investigate the genetic basis of behaviour.Concordance rates between twins are calculated-the extent to which twins share the same characteristic.Higher concordance rates among identical (monozygotic,MZ) twins than non-identical (dizygotic,DZ) twins is evidence of a genetic basis.E.g,68% of MZ twins both have OCD compared with 31% of DZ twins.
        
        The difference between genotype and phenotype.A person's genotype is their actual genetic make-up.Phenotype is the way that genes are expressed through physical,behavioural and physiological characteristics.The expression of genotype (phenotype) is influenced by environmental factors.E.g.phenyIketonuria (PKU) is a genetic disorder that can be prevented by a restricted diet.This suggests that much of human behaviour depends on the interaction of nature and nurture.
        
        Theory of evolution is used by the biological approach to explain many aspects of behaviour.Darwin (1859) proposed the theory of natural selection.Any genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will be passed on to future generations.Such genes are described as adaptive and give the possessor and their offspring advantages.For instance,attachment behaviours in newborns promote survival and are therefore adaptive and naturally selected.
        
        Strengths
        
        real-life application
        
        scientific methods of investigation.
        
        Weaknesses
        
        casual conclusions about neurotransmitters are difficult to establish.
        
        based on a determinist view of behaviour.
        
        methodological problem is the difficulty of separating nature and nurture.
- - - - Standardised procedure so standardised instruction for participants and can be repeated.
        
        Significant at the time.
        
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        Wundt's method were scientific
        
        Modern psychology aim to be scientific: learning cognitive and biological approaches
        
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        Some asspect are not scientific:self report which can be subjective
        
        NOt all approaches ai to be scientifi:psychodynamic and humanistic:not possible to study human behaviour scientifically.