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Psychopathology (Definition of abnormality:1 (Statistical infrequency…

- - - - Behaviour that is rarely seen is abnormal.Any relatively 'usual',or often seen,behaviour can be thought of as 'normal'.Any behaviour that is different,or rare,is 'abnormal', e.g. a statistical infrequency.
        
        E.G.IQ and intellectual disability disorder.IQ is normally distributed.The average IQ is 100.Most people have an IQ between 85 and 115,only 2% have a score below 70.Those individuals scoring below 70 are statistically unusual or 'abnormal' and are diagnosed with intellectual disability disorder.
        
        Strength
        
        Real-life application
        
        Weaknesses
        
        Unusual characteristics can be positive
        
        Not everyone unusual benefits form a label.
  - - - Three types of consequences of behaviour.These are relatively few behaviours that would be considered universally abnormal therefore definitions are related to cultural context.This includes historical differences within the same society.E.g,homosexuality is viewed as abnormal in some cultures but not others and was considered abnormal in our society in the past.
        
        E.g:Antisocial personality disorder (APD).One important symptom of APD (formerly psychopathy) is a failure to conform to 'lawful and culturally normative ethical behaviour'.In other words,a psychopath is abnormal because they deviate from social norms or standards.They generally lack empathy.
        
        Weaknesses
        
        Not a sole explanation of abnormality
        
        Culturally relative
        
        Can lead to human rights abuses.
- - - - Rosenhan and Seligman proposed signs of failure to cope.When someone is not coping:They on longer conform to interpersonal rules like maintaining personal space.They experience personal distress.They behave in a way that is irrational or dangerous.
        
        E.g.Intellectual disability disorder:Having a very low IQ is a statistical infrequency but diagnosis would not be made on the basis alone.There would have to be clear signs that,as a result of this,the person was not able to cope with the demands of everyday living.So intellectual disability disorder is an example of failure to function adequately.
        
        Strength
        
        Recognises patient's perspective
        
        Weaknesses
        
        Same as deviation from social norm.
        
        Subjective judgement.
  - - - Jahoda listed 8 criteria:1.We have no symptoms or distress.2.We are rational and perceive ourselves accurately.3.We self-actualise.4.We can cope with stress.5.We have a realistic view of the world.6.We have good self-esteem and lack guilt.7.We are independent of other people.8.We can successfully work,love and enjoy our leisure.
        
        Inevitable overlap between definitions.Someone's inability to keep a job may be a sign of their failure to cope with the pressures of work (failure to function).Or as a deviation from the ideal of successful working.
        
        Strength
        
        Comprehensive
        
        Weaknesses
        
        May be culturally relative
        
        Unrealistically high standard for mental health.
- - - - Formation of an anxiety hierarchy.Patient and therapist design an anxiety hierarchy-a list of fearful stimuli arranged in order from least to most frightening.An arachnophobia might identify seeing a picture of a small spider as low on their anxiety hierarchy and holding a tarantula as the final item.
        
        Relaxation practised at each level of the hierarchy.Phobic individual is first taught relaxation techniques such as deep breathing and/or meditation.Patient then works through the anxiety hierarchy.At each level the phobic is exposed to the phobic stimulus in are relaxed state.This take place over several sessions starting at the bottom of the hierarchy.Treatment is successful when the person can stay relaxed in situations high on the hierarchy.
        
        Strengths
        
        Suitable for a diverse range of patients
        
        Acceptable to patients
        
        Effective
  - - - Very quick learning through extinction.Without the option of avoidance behaviour,the patient quickly learns that the phobic object is harmless through the exhaustion of their fear response.This is known as extinction.
        
        Ethical safeguards.Flooding is not unethical but it is an unpleasant experience so it is important that patients give informed consent.They must be fully prepared and know what to expect.
        
        Weaknesses
        
        Less effective for some type of phobia
        
        Traumatic for patients
- - - - Depressed people have negative self-schemas. A schema is a 'package' of ideas and information developed through experience.We use schemas to interpret the world,so if a person has a negative self-schema they interpret all information about themselves in a negative way.
        
        The negative triad.These are three elements to the negative triad:1.Negative views of the world.2.Negative views of the future.3.Negative view of the self.
        
        Strengths
        
        Has practical application as a therapy
        
        Has good supporting evidence
        
        Weakness
        
        Does not explain all aspects of depression.
  - - - B:Beliefs.Negative events trigger irrational beliefs,e.g:1.Ellis called the belief that we must always succeed 'musternation'.2.'I-can't-stand-it-itis' is the belief that it is a disaster when things do not go smoothly.3.'Utopianism' is the belief that the world must always be fair and just.
        
        C:Consequences.When an activating event triggers irrational beliefs there are emotional and behavioural consequences.E.g,if you believe you must always succeed and then you fail at something,the consequences is depression.
        
        Weaknesses
        
        Partial explanation of depression
        
        Cognitions may not cause all aspects of depression
- - - - OCD is polygenic.OCD is not caused by one single gene but several genes are involved.Taylor found evidence that up to 230 different genes may be involved in OCD.
        
        Different types of OCD.One group of genes may cause OCD in one person but a different group of genes may cause the disorder in another person-known as aetiologically heterogenous.There is also evidence that different types of OCD may be the result of particular genetic variations,such as hoarding disorder and religious obsession.
        
        Strength
        
        Good supporting evidence
        
        Weaknesses
        
        Environmental risk factor are involved
        
        Too many candidates genes have been identified
  - - - Decision-making systems in frontal lobes impaired.
- - - - Little Albert conditioned fear.Watson and Raynor showed how a fear of rats could be conditioned in 'Little Albert'.1.Whenever Albert played with a white rat,a loud noise (UCS) caused a fear response (UCR).2.Rat (NS) did not create fear until the bang and the rat had been paired together several times.3.Albert showed a fear response (CR) every time he came into contact with the rat (now a CS).
        
        Generalisation of fear to other stimuli.E.g.,Little Albert also showed a fear in response to other white furry objects including a fur coat and a Santa Claus mask.
        
        Maintenance by operant conditioning (negative reinforcement).Operant conditioning takes place when our behaviour is reinforced or punished.Negative reinforcement-an individual produces behaviour that avoids something unpleasant.When a phobic avoids a phobic stimulus they escape the anxiety that would have been experienced.This reduction in fear negatively reinforces the avoidance behaviour and the phobia is maintained.
        
        E.gs of negative reinforcement.If someone has a morbid fear of clowns they will avoid circuses and other situations where they may encounter clowns.This relief felt from avoiding clowns negatively reinforces the phobia and ensures it is maintained rather than confronted.
        
        Strength
        
        Two-process model is it has good explanatory power.
        
        Weaknesses
        
        Two process-model is an incomplete explanation of phobias.
        
        Two-process model doesn't properly consider the cognitive aspects of phobias.
        
        Not all bad experiences lead to phobias.
- - - - Challenging negative thoughts relating to negative triad.The aim is to identify negative thoughts about the self,the world and the future-the negative triad.These thoughts must be challenged by the patient taking an active role in their treatment.
        
        The 'patient as scientist'.Patients are encouraged to test the reality of their irrational beliefs.They might be set homework,e.g. to record when they enjoyed an event or when people were nice to them.This is referred to as the 'patient as scientist'.In future sessions if patients say that no-one is nice to them or there is no point going on,the therapist can produce the evidence to prove the patient's beliefs incorrect.
        
        Ellis's rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT).REBT extends the ABC model to an ABCDE model.D for dispute (challenge) irrational beliefs.E for effect.
        
        Challenging irrational beliefs.A patient might talk about how unlucky they have been or how unfair life is.An REBT therapist would identify this as utopianism and challenge it is an irrational belief:Empirical argument-disputing whether there is evidence to support the irrational belief.Logical argument-disputing whether the negative thought actually follows from the facts.
        
        Behavioural activation.As individuals become depressed,they tend to increasingly avoid difficult situations and become isolated,which maintains or worsens symptoms.The goal of treatment,therefore,is to work with depressed individuals to gradually decrease their avoidance and isolation,and increase their engagement in activities that have been shown to improve mood,e.g. exercising,going out to dinner,etc.
        
        Strength
        
        1 more item...
        
        Weaknesses
        
        3 more items...
- - - - Typical dosage.A typical daily dose of Fluoxetine (an SSRI) is 20 mg although this may be increased if it not benefiting the patient.It takes 3-4 months of daily use for SSRIs to impact upon symptoms.This can be increased (e.g 60 mg a day) if this is appropriate.
        
        Combining SSRIs with CBT.Drugs are often used alongside cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT) to treat OCD.The drugs reduce a patient's emotional symptoms,such as feeling anxious or depressed.This means that patients can engage more effectively with CBT.
        
        Alternative to SSRIs:Tricyclics.Tricyclics (an older type of antidepressant) are sometimes used,such as Clomipramine.These have the same effect on the serotonin system as SSRIs but the side-effects can be more severe.
        
        Alternative to SSRIs:SNRIs.In the last five years a different class of antidepressant drugs called serotonin noradrenaline reuptake inhibitor (SNRIs) has also been used to treat OCD.Like tricyclics these are a second line of defence for patients who don't respond to SSRIs.SNRIs increase levels of serotonin as well as noradrenaline.
        
        Strengths
        
        Cost-effective and non-disruptive
        
        Effective at tackling OCD symptoms
        
        Weaknesses
        
        Have side-effective
        
        Unreliable
        
        Some cases of OCD follow trauma