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Animal Form and Function (Basic Principals (Levels of Organization (Body…

- - - - Animals in the same environment have similar morphologies
      - On land, larger bodies need more ATP to support so there aren't many large land animals
      - More O2, the more available for cellular respiration, which is able to support size and need for energy
    - - Happens when substances dissolved in aqueous solution move across plasma membrane of cell
      - Internal Exchange
        
        Food comes in through mouth
        
        Nutrients absorbed in circulatory system, where O2 is taken in by respiratory system
        
        Blood transporting items is filtered through kidneys
        
        Waste from food comes out as feces, waste from blood comes out as urine
      - Interstitial Fluid: Fluid between cells
      - Direct Exchange w/ Environment
        
        Single celled amoeba have mouth cavity and gastrovascular cavity
        
        Rate of exchange is proportional to surface area
        
        Amount of material exchanged proportional to body volume
      - Internal digestive organs control release of stored energy
    - - Tissues: Group of similar cells w/ similar appearance and function
      - Organs: Tissues with the same function
      - Organ System: Organs working together
      - Organ Systems in Mammals
        
        Digestive(esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas) Food processing
        
        Circualatory(heart, blood vessels, blood) internal distribution
        
        Respiratory(lungs, trachea) gas exchange
        
        Immune and Lymphatic(bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessels) body defense
        
        Excretory(kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra)Disposal of waste and regulation of blood
        
        Endocrine(pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal) Coordination of body activities
        
        Nervous(brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs) detection of stimuli and responses
        
        Integumentary(skin) Thermoregulation and protection against injury, infection,
      - Epithelial Tissues
        
        Stratified Squamous: Multilayer that regenerates quickly. Found on outer skin, mouth, anus, vagina
        
        Pseudostratified Columnar: Single layer that forms mucous membrane. Lines respiratory tract
        
        Simple Squamos: Single layer of platelike cells. Thin and weakly, lines blood vessels and airs sacs of lungs
        
        Simple Columnar: Brick shaped cells where secretion/absorption is important like intestines
        
        Cuboidal: Dice shaped cells for secretion. Found in kidney tubules and glands
        
        Transitional: Cells of stretchy body parts like bladder
        
        Ciliated has cilia
        
        Apical is surface of tissue facing cavity
        
        Basal is inside part of epithelial (opposite of apical)
      - Connective tissues
        
        Classified by Matrix: Extracellular fiber
        
        Loose Connective: Found on skin
        
        Fibrous Connective: Cells squished in-between tendons/ligaments
        
        Bone: Mineralize connective tissue (cartilage and minerals CaPO4)
        
        Adipose: Stores fat to insulate body
        
        Cartilage: Fibers in protein-carbohydrate complex (chondroitin surface)
        
        Blood: Suspended in plasma and erythrocytes
      - Muscle Tissue
        
        3 Types
        
        Skeletal: Striated w/ many nuclei; voluntary; cells as long as muscle
        
        Smooth: Spindle shape; uninucleate; found in organs that move involuntarily; unstriated
        
        Cardiac: Striated branched cells linked by interpolated discs; 1 or 2 nuclei; involuntary
        
        Striation: Stripes in cells
    - - Endocrine System
        
        Signaled by hormones
        
        Hormones are released into bloodstream and only affects those w/ receptors
        
        Takes a while
        
        Hormones: Signaling molecules
      - Nervous System
        
        Signals travel through axons/neurons
        
        Nerve impulses act on other neurons, muscle cells, and glands.
        
        Extremely fast
        
        Limited to cells w/ junction to axon
  - - - Regulator
        
        Internal temperature stays the same regardless of the environment
        
        Mammals
        
        Endothermic
      - Conformer
        
        Changes internal temperature to adjust to the environment around them
        
        Amphibians
        
        Stimulus-Sensor-Control Center-Effector-Response
        
        Exothermic
    - - Feedback Control
        
        Positive Feedback
        
        Increase change from normal that adds on to whatever happening
        
        Child labor, gain weight, orgasm
        
        Climax
        
        Negative Feedback
        
        Response reduces change from normal
        
        Sweating, shivering, child birth
      - Circadian Rhythm: Set of physiological changes that occur every 24 hrs
      - Some changes occur at a certain stage in life (puberty)
  - - - Ways Heat Can Be Transferred
        
        Convection: Transfer of heat by movement of what's around you
        
        Radiation: Heat that can travel through mediums
        
        Evaporation: Removal of heat by vibrating molecules
        
        Conduction: Transfer of molecules between objects (movement of molecules)
      - Integumentary System: Outer covering of body
      - Insulation
        
        Reduces flow of heat from body
        
        Needed for endotherms that need to maintain internal temp.
        
        Feathers, fur, fat
        
        Goosebumps are the body's way of fluffing fur
      - Circulatory Adaptations
        
        Vasoconstriction: Decrease I diameter of blood vessels (pale, blue) saves body heat
        
        Vasodilation: Increase in diameter blood vessels (blush) Gets rid of body heat
        
        Counter-Exchange: Transfer of heat between fluids going in opposite directions
      - Behavioral Responses
        
        "obelisk" position minimizes the amount of their body exposed to the sun
        
        When warm they expand their body to capture more sunlight
    - - Hypothalamus: Sensors for thermoregulation
      - Sensors signal hypothalamus when too hot or too cold
      - If too hot, heat retention shuts down and vessels dilate
      - If too cold, inhibit heat loss and constrict vessels
  - - - BMR Basal Metabolic Rate: Bottom of the scale when you're not doing anything
      - SMR Standard Metabolic Rate: Average right when you're doing common things
      - Measured at comfortable temperature
      - An ectotherm requires less energy
      - Larger animals require more energy (direct relationship)
    - - Hibernation: Long term torpor (adaptation to winter cold)
      - Estivation: Summer torpor (animals hibernate when its hot)
      - Torpor: State of decreased activity and metabolism (when it gets cold)
- - - - Not enough essential nutrients causes disease, deformities, or death
      - After the body uses up all its carbs and fats it starts breaking down protein
      - Muscles shrink and brain is protein-deficient
    - - Amino Acids
        
        All organisms require 20 amino acids
        
        Plants can produce the 20 but animals can't
        
        Animals have to obtain it from their food
        
        There are 8 that humans don't make those are essential amino acids
      - Fatty Acids
        
        Animals can't make fatty acids w/ double bonds
        
        Linoleic Acid
      - Vitamins
        
        0.1-100mg per day
        
        13 vitamins required in humans
        
        Organic molecule
        
        Overdose of fat soluble vitamins can be toxic if losing lots of weight in a short amount of time
      - Minerals
        
        Inorganic molecule
        
        Found in food
        
        Too much causes homeostatic imbalance
      - Most vitamins and minerals activate enzymes
  - - - Smaller pieces = more surface area for chemical breakdown
      - Mucus: Mixture of water, salt, cells, and glycoproteins
      - Releases salivary amylase - breaks down carbs
      - Tongue shapes food and saliva into a bolus
      - Bolus: ball of chewed up food and saliva
      - Pushed down the esophagus by peristalsis
      - Before it enters the stomach its stoped by a sphincter
    - - Chemical Digestion
        
        HCl in the stomach denatures proteins
        
        Increases exposure of peptide bonds
        
        Further broken down by protease which breaks down protein
      - Stomach Dynamics
        
        Stomach muscles church the food every 20 seconds
        
        Facilitates chemical digestion
        
        Moves material through alimentary canal
    - - Duodenum: First 25cm of small intestine
      - Longest compartment of alimentary canal (20 feet long)
      - Enzymes that are secreted from the pancreas break down proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
      - Enzyme secretion is triggered by arrival of chyme
      - Fats
        
        Insoluble to water
        
        Broken down in lumen
        
        Reassembled in epithelial cells
        
        Transported in globules (chylomicrons)
        
        Goes through lymph to lymph vessel
        
        Then is deposited into blood
    - - Villi: Finger-like projections in the small intestine
      - Microvilli: Microscopic projections on the villi
      - Increases surface are for maximum nutrient absorption
      - The size of a tennis court
      - Hepatic Portal Vein: blood vessel that leads directly to the liver and helps filter out toxins that could have made it to the blood
      - Recovers water and ions
    - - Too much absorption = constipation
      - Too much absorption = diarrhea
      - Water absorption and vitamins and minerals to produce feces
      - appendix: Finger shaped extension from cecum
      - Colon/Large Intestine
  - - - Reflects an animal's diet
      - Sharp teeth are for meat
      - Molars are for plants
      - Snakes have fangs to inject venom
    - - Herbivores have longer alimentary canals to digest grass/corn
      - Some vertebrates have expandable stomachs (humans) (pythons)
    - - 10-100 trillion bacteria live in the human digestive system
      - E. coli is common (humans get sick from a different strain)
      - Coexistance of humans and bacteria is a mutualistic adaptation
      - Microbiome: Collection of microorganisms living in and on the human body and their genetic material
      - Herbivores have a host of bacteria and protists to digest cellulose
      - Bacteria carry out chemoautotrophy
  - - - Every time food reaches a new compartment it triggers the release of enzymes or digestive juices
      - Hormones released by the stomach and duodenum make sure digestive enzymes and juices are only secreted when needed
      - If they were secreted all the time they'd digest or bodies
    - - Glucose Homeostasis
        
        Relies primarily on insulin and glucagon
        
        When glucose levels rise, insulin triggers intake of glucose from blood to cells
        
        This decreased glucose concentration
        
        When glucose levels drop, glucagon releases stored glucose
        
        Occurs in the liver
      - Diabetes Mellitus
        
        Caused by deficiency of glucose
        
        Glucose levels rise but cells can't absorb it
        
        Fat is used for cellular respiration
        
        Type 1 Diabetes
        
        Autoimmune disorder
        
        Destroys beta cells of pancreas
        
        Treatment is insulin injections
        
        Type 2 Diabetes
        
        Destroyed body's receptors to make more glucose
        
        Can control with diet and exercise
    - - Overnourishment leads to obesity
      - Neurons regulate long term and short term appetite
      - Ghrelin triggers hunger (comes from stomach wall)
      - Rise in sugar levels triggers release of insulin (suppresses appetite)
      - Leptin surpasses appetite. Levels fall when body fat decreases
      - PYY counters ghrelin