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Chapter 40 and Chapter 41 (Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function …
Chapter 40 and Chapter 41
Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function
(Ch.40)
Anatomy and physiology (ch. 40.1)
Anatomy
biological form, to species survival
Physiology
biological function
Animals form and function are correlated at all levels of organization (ch 40.1)
Physical laws influence animal body plans with regard to maximum size
as body dimensions increase, thicker skeletons are required to maintain adequate support
as bodies increases in size, the muscles required for locomotion must represent an ever larger fraction of the total body mass
Exchange with the Environment
exchange occurs as substances dissolved in an aqueous solution move across the plasma membrane of each cell.
Example: single-celled organism, such as the amoeba, has a sufficient membrane surface area in contact ith its environment to carry out all necessary exchange
the rate of exchange is proportional to the membrane surface area involved in exchange
internal body fluids link exchange surfaces to body cells
Interstitial fluid
the spaces between cells are filled with fluid
exchange between interstitial fluid and circulatory fluid enables cells throughout the body to obtain nutrients and get rid of wastes
Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans
tissues
groups of cells with a similar appearance and a common function
Loose connective tissue
binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place
Fibrous connective tissue
is dense with collagenous fibers
tendons
attach muscles to bones
ligaments
connects bones at joints
adipose tissue
stores fat in adipose cells distributed throughout its matrix
insulates the body and stores fuel as fat molecules
muscle tissues
responsible for all types of body movement
organs
different types of tissues are further organized into functional units
organ system
groups of organs that work together
Digestive system
Includes Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus
Main function: food processing ( ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)
Circulatory system
heart, blood vessels, blood
Main function: internal distribution of materials
Respiratory System
Lungs,trachea, other breathing tubes
main function: gas exchange (uptake of oxygen, disposal of carbon dioxide)
Immune and Lymphatic system
bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessels
main function: body defense (fighting infections and virtually induced cancers)
Excretory System
kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
main function: disposal of metabolic wastes; regulation of osmotic balance of blood
Endocrine System
Pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, and other hormone-secreting glands
Coordination of body activities (such as digestion and metabolism)
Nervous System
Brain,spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs
main function: coordination of body activities; detection of stimuli and formulation of responses to them
Reproductive system
Ovaries or testes and associated organs
gamete production; promotion of fertilization; support of developing embryo
Muscular System
Skeletal muscles
Main function: locomotion and other movement
Skeletal System
skeletal (bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage)
Main function: body support, protection of internal organs, movement
Integumentary system
Skin and its derivatives (such as hair, claws, sweat glands)
Main function:protection against mechanical injury, infection, dehydration; thermoregulation
Feedback control maintains the internal environment in many animals (Ch.40.2)
Regulating and Conforming
Regulator
an animal uses internal mechanisms to control internal change in the face of external fluctuation
Conformer
an animal allows its internal condition to change in accordance with external changes in the particular variable
Homeostasis
the maintenance of internal balance
Mechanisms of homeostasis
maintaining a set point
stimulus
a fluctuation in the variable above or below the set point
is detected by the sensor
sends a signal to the control center which generates an output and triggers a response
a physiological activity that helps return the variable to the set point
Feedback control in homeostasis
Negative feedback
a control mechanism that "damps" its stimulus
Ex: when you exercise, you produce heat which increases your body temperature. Your nervous system detects this increase and triggers sweating
Positive feedback
is a control mechanism that amplifies the stimulus
do not play major role in homeostasis
helps drive processes to completion
Alterations in Homeostasis
Circadian rhythm
a set of physiological changes that occur roughly every 24 hours
can be observed by monitoring the body temperature
Example: the hormone melatonin is secreted at night , and more is released during the longer nights of winter
Hypothalamus
the brain region the controls the circadian clock
group of nerve cells functions as a thermostat, responding to body temperatures outside the normal range
Acclimatization
an animal's physiological adjustment to changes in its external environment
Ex: an elk moving up into the mountains from sea level, the lower the oxygen concentration, the more rapidly the animal breathes
a temporary change during an animal's lifetime should not be confused with adaptation
Homeostatic process for thermoregulation involve form, function, and behavior (40.3)
Thermoregulation
process by which animals maintain their body temperatures within normal range
Affects of body temperatures outside of normal range
reduce the efficiency of enzymatic reactions
alter the fluidity of cellular membranes
affect other temperature-sensitive biochemical processes, potentially with fatal results
Endothermic
animals are warmed mostly by heat generated by metabolism
Example; a bird
can maintain a stable body temperature even in the face of large fluctuations in the environment
generates enough heat to keep its body substantially warmer than its surroundings
Ectothermic
animals gain most of their heat from external sources
Example: lizard
adjust their body temperature to their surroundings
Example: seeking shade or basking on a rock in the sun
Balancing Heat Loss and Gain
The integumentary system
the outer covering of the body, consisting of the skin, hair and nails
maintains the rate of heat gain that equals the rate of heat loss
Insulation
reduces the flow of heat between an animal's body and its environment
Example: hair and feathers
Radiation
the emission of electromagnetic waves by all objects warmer than absolute zero
Evaporation
removal of heat from the surface of a liquid that is losing some of its molecules as gas
Convection
the transfer of heat by the movement of air or liquid past a surface
Conduction
the direct transfer of thermal motion (heat) between molecules of objects in contact with each other
Energy requirements are related to animal size, activity,and environment (40.4)
Bioenergetic
determines nutritional needs and is related to the animal's size, activity, and environment.
Energy Allocation and Use
Autotrophs
harness light energy to build energy-rich organic molecules and then use those molecules for fuel
Heterotrophs
obtain their chemical energy from food
contains organic molecules synthesized by other organic molecules
Uses cellular respiration to produce ATP
keeps the animal alive and allows organs to perform functions
Metabolic Rate
the sum of all the energy an animal uses in a given time interval
can be measured by monitoring an animal's rate of heat loss
can be determined by the amount of oxygen consumed or carbon dioxide produced by an animal's cellular respiration
Basal Metabolic Rate
the minimum metabolic rate of a non growing endothermic that is at rest
measured under "comfortable" temperature range
a range that requires only the minimum generation or shedding of heat
the minimum metabolic rate of ectotherms is determined at specific temperature because changes in the environment temp. alters body temp
Standard Metabolic Rate
metabolic rate of a fasting, non stressed ectotherm at rest at a particular temperature
Torpor and Energy Conservation
Torpor
a physiological state of decreased activity and metabolism
Hibernation
long-term torpor that is an adaptation to winter cold and food scarcity
animal's body temperature declines
Animal Nutrition Ch.41
The Need to feed
Herbivores
dine mainly on plants or algae
Carnivores
meat eaters, mostly eat other animals
Omnivores
regularly consume animals as well as plants or algae
Animal's diet must supply chemical energy 41.1
Essential Nutrients
susbstances that an animal requires but cannot assemble from simple organic molecules
Essential Amino Acids
all organisms require a standard set of 20 amino acids to make a complete set of proteins
are obtained from the animal's food in prefabricated form
many animals including adult humans, require eight amino acids in their diert
Isoleucine
leucine
lysine
methlonine
phenylalanine
threonine
tryptophan
valine
Essential Fatty Acids
fatty acids are required to synthesize a variety of cellular components including membrane phospholipids, signaling molecules, and storage fat
molecules obtained from a diet because animals lack the enzymes to form double bonds found in certain required fatty acids
Vitamins
Rare organic molecules that are required in the diet in very small amounts
B1
Thiamine
coenzyme used in removing CO2 from organic molecules
B2
riboflavin
component of coenzymes FAD and FMN
B6
pyridoxine
coenzyme used in amino acid metabolism
B3
Niacin
component of coenzymes NAD+ and NADP
B5
Pantothenic acid
component of coenzyme A
B12
cobalamin
productions of nucleic acids and amino acid metabolism
B7
biotin
coenzyme in synthesis of fat, glycogen, and amino acids
B9
folic acid
coenzyme in nucleic acid and amino acid metabolism
Minerals
inorganic nutrients that are required in small amounts
Calcium
dairy products, dark green vegetables, legumes
bone and tooth formation, blood clotting, nerve and muscle function
Phosphorus
dairy products , meats , grains
bone and tooth formation, acid-base balance, nucleotide synthesis
Sulfur
proteins from many sources
component of certain amino acids
Potassium
meats, dairy products, many fruits and vegetables, grains
acid-base balance, water balance, nerve function
Chlorine
table salt
acid-base balance , formation of gastric juice, nerve function, osmotic balance
Sodium
Table salt
acid-base balance, water balance , nerve function
Magnesium
Whole grains, green leafy vegetables
enzyme cofactor ;ATP bioenergetics
Iron (Fe)
Meats, eggs, legumes, whole grains, green leafy vegetables
component of hemoglobin and of electron carriers;; enzyme cofactor
Fluorine
Drinking water,tea,seafood
maintenance of tooth structure
Food Processing Ch.41.2
Ingestion
the act of eating or feeding
Filter Feeding
strains small organisms or food particles from the surrounding medium
Bulk Feeding
eating relatively large pieces of food
Fluid Feeding
suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host
Ex: Leech
Substrate Feeding
animals that live in their food source
Digestion
second stage of food processing, food is broken down into molecules small enough for the body to absorb
Chemical digestion
cleaves large molecules into smaller compound
Intracellular Digestion
food vacuoles
cellular organelles in which hydrolytic enzymes break down food
begins after a cell engulfs solid food by phagocytosis or liquid food by pinocytosis
Extracellular Digestion
the breakdown of food in compartments that are continuous with the outside of the animal's body
Gastrovascular Cavity
functions in digestion as well as in the distribution of nutrients throughout the body
Absorption
the animal's cells take up (absorb) small organism
Elimination
undigested material passes out of the digestive system
Organs specialized for sequential stages of food processing form the mammalian digestive system Ch 41.3
Oral Cavity
the mouth
teeth with specialized shapes cut, mash, and grind, breaking the food into smaller pieces
increases the surface area available for chemical breakdown and facilitates swallowing
food arrival triggers the release of saliva by the salivary glands
contains mucus which is a viscous mixture of water, salts, cells, and slippery glycoproteins
mucus lubricates food for easier swallowing, protects the gums against abrasions and facilitates taste and smell
saliva contains a large amount of the enzyme amylase
breaks down starch and glycogen
shapes food into a bolus
food and saliva mixed up together
the bolus of food is received by the pharynx or throat region
esophagus
a muscular tube that connects to the stomach
food is pushed along by peristalsis
alternating waves of smooth muscle contraction and relaxation
the end of esophagus the bolus encounters a sphincter
ringlike valve of muscle
Digestion in the stomach
located just below the diaphragm, plays two major roles in digestion
the stomach secretes a digestive fluid called gastric juice
mixes with the food through a churning action
mixture of ingested food and gastric juice is called chyme
Chemical Digestion in the Stomach
protease
protein-digesting enzyme
pepsin
adapted to work best in acidic environment
breaks peptide bonds and cleaves proteins into smaller polypeptides and further exposes the contents of ingested tissues
Parietal cells
use an ATP- driven pump to expel hydrogen ions into the lumen
Chief cells
release pepsin into the lumen in an inactive form called pepsinogen
Digestion in the small intestine
the small intestine is in fact the alimentary canal's longest compartment
the first 25 cm of the small intestine forms the duodenum
the arrival of chyme in the duodenum triggers release of the horomone secretin
stimulate the pancreas to secrete biocarbonate
neutralizes the acidity of chyme and acts as a buffer for chemical digestion in the small intestine
bile
a secretion of the liver that is stored and concentrated in the gallbladder
production contributes to another vital liver function
Absorption in the small intestines
Villi
large folds in the lining encircle the intestine and are studded with finger-shaped
microvilli
face the intestinal lumen and comes off the villi
Hepatic portal Vein
a blood vessel that leads directly to the liver
Large intestine
includes colon, cecum, and rectum
Colon
leads to the rectum and anus
cecum
fermenting ingested material
human appendix
a finger shaped extension of the human cecum
serves as a reservoir for symbiotic microorganisms
Feedback circuits and regulate digestion energy storage and appetite ( 41.5)
Regulation of digestion
digestive systems are not active continuously
as food triggers the secretion of digestive juices for the next stage of processing
muscular contractions move the contents farther along the canal
a series of horomones released by the endocrine system and duodenum helps ensure the digestive secretions are present only when needed
Glucose Homeostasis
the synthesis and breakdown of glycogen are central for energy storage and maintaining metabolic balance through glucose homeostasis
relies on the levels of insulin and glucagon
insulin
triggers the uptake of glucose from the blood into body cells
decreasing the blood glucose concentration
glucagon
promotes the release of glucose into the blood from energy stores
produced in the pancreas
clusters of endocrine cells called pancreatic islets are scattered throughout this organ
alpha cells
make glucagon
beta cells
makes insulin
Diabetes mellitus
caused by a deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to insulin in target tissues
Type 1 diabetes
insulin-dependent diabetes
is an autoimmune disorder in which the immune system destroys the beta cells of the pancreas
destroys a person's ability to produce insulin
Type 2 Diabetes
non-insulin dependent diabetes
a failure of target cells to respond normally to insulin
appears around the age 40
caused by overweight and unhealthy diet