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(Organs Specialized for Stages of Food Processing (Digestion in small…

- - - - gallbladder
      - pancreas
      - liver
    - - sphincter above small intestine opens allowing 1 squirt of chyme at a time
  - - - Process food into liquid by secretion of digestive juices
        
        gastric juice: juices in stomach secret and mix with food during churninig
        
        chyme: mix of ingested food and gastric juices
      - storage: accordion like folds allows large amounts of food to
    - - 2 components help liquefy food
        
        Protease-Pepsin: works best in acidic environments, breaks down peptide bonds
        
        HCl disrupts extracellular matrix that binds cells together in plant and meat materials
        
        denatures proteins exposing peptide bonds
        
        has a low pH-2 therefore has a high concentration of HCl
      - 2 types of cells that produce gastric juices
        
        Parietal Cells: ATP-pump releases H ions into the lumen. Chloride ions diffuse into lumen through channels of parietal cells
        
        Chief Cells; release pepsin into lumen in an inactive form pepsinogen
        
        HCl coverts pepsinogen into active form by removing small molecular portion revealing active site
        
        HCl and pepsin form in lumen not gastric glands
        
        positive feedback
      - Mucus cells: cell that secrete mucus and protect the stomach lining from getting digested/and or acid eating through it
      - cell division adds a new layer of skin every 3 days
  - - - cant be effectively broken down by enzymes because they are not water soluble
      - bile salts help digest fat
      - bile: secretions of the liver that is stored in the gallbladder
    - - biocarbonate neaturalizes acidoty of chyme
      - protease trypsin, chymotrypsin are inactive till they are in lumen of duodenum
  - - - microvilli: within the villi each epithelial cell has a microscopic projection that faces lumen
      - large surface area: evolutionary adaptation that increases nutrients absorption
      - villi: finger like projections
  - - - regulate intestinal epithelium
      - some produce vitamins
    - - nutritional deficiencies
      - cardiovascular disease
      - changes in the microbiome can lead to obesity
      - inflammation disease of digestive system
      - ffunction/brain
    - - some store microorganisms in a large cecum/muscular crop
      - some live in large intestine
      - most evolved are he ruminants (cattle,deer,sheep)
        
        sometimes regurgitation of the cud occurs for further digestion
        
        rectum/reticulum where microorganisms digest cellulose
        
        the reswallowed cud passes omasum where some water is removed
        
        then it goes to the abomasum for further digestion
- - - - major adaptation for mammals/birds
      - found on hair/feathers and beneath layer of fat
      - some animals secrete oils to keep insulation safe
      - feathers/hair raise up to trap thick layer of air
      - if there is not much hair organism relies of fat
      - marine animals use blubber to keep warm and move much more effectively than land animals without using as much heat
    - - provide a route for heat flow between interior and exterior body flow
      - in temperature changes animals alter the blood amount (heat) flowing between body core and their skin
      - vasodilation: widening caused by nerve signals relaxing the muscles
        
        increased diameter increases blood flow in skin
        
        helps get blood to core
      - Countercurrent exchange: reducing heat loss from the body using the transfer of heat between fluids that are flowing in opposite direction
        
        veins and arteries
        
        concurrent: traps heat in body core reducing heat loss from extremities
        
        atrial blood can still transfer heat to vein even if has been cooled as it travels to arteries it continues to absorb heat
  - - - thermogenesis: match changing rates of heat loss increase by muscle activity (shivering)
      - small ectotherms (insects) and are able to fly in cold air due to shivering
      - nonshivering thermogenesis: endocrine signals mitochondria to produce ATP= heat
        
        brown fat: tissues specialized for rapid heat loss
        
        animals in cold temperatures contain high amounts of brown fat
- - - - organic nitrogen (protein)
      - source of organic carbon (sugar)
  - - - not all the macromolecules are provided that are required for a human
      - to much of a fats soluble vitamin can build up as fat causing health problems
      - it can provide an excess of water soluble vitamins which will exit as urine
  - - - body uses up all the stored fat and carbohydrates then it begins to break down proteins for energy
      - muscles begin to shrink
      - deficient in protein
  - - - folic acids is added to foods now to avoid defect
- - - - waste products
      - gases
      - nutrients
      - exchanges limit body plan
    - - the rate of exchange is proportionate to the membrane surface area involved int he exchange
      - amount of material being exchanged is proportionate to the body of volume
      - only works if ever cell has access to a suitable aqueous environment inside or out
    - - phylum cnidarian have the gastrovascular cavity that opens up to the external environment
    - - increasing the number of cells decreases the ratio of outer surface area total to volume
      - the ratio of a whale is smaller that a water flea
      - specialized surfaces that are in specified order have folded or branched surfaces that increases surface area
        
        digestive, respiratory,and excretory system
        
        protects soft tissue from abrasions
        
        protects from dehydration
      - Digestive System: has finger like projections
        
        as food gets broken down as it goes through the digestive system it get absorbed into the circulatory system
        
        Anus is an exit for absorbed mater= feces
        
        Mouth=opening
      - Respiratory System: has a sponge like surface
        
        allows the entry of O2 and the exit of CO2 through an opening
        
        transports O2 through the body
      - Excretory System: blood vessels that are packed into ball shaped structures inside the kidney
        
        gets rid of metabolic waste=nitrogenous waste
      - Circulatory System
        
        flows throughout all the systems
        
        heat pumps blood
      - interstitial fluid:fluid between cells helps link exchange through surfaces to body cells
        
        exchange between the circulatory system and interstitial fluid enables cells to get nutrients throughout the body and get rid of waste
      - benefits to being complex
        
        digestive system breaks down food gradually controlling the release of stored energy
        
        filtration system adjust internal fluids
        
        sensory organs help provide details
        
        advantage for on land organisms that have a variable external environment
        
        external skeletons protects against external environment
  - - - pancreas secretes enzymes for the digestive system and regulates sugar for the endocrine system
    - - Connective
        
        classified by matrix: extracellular fibers
        
        matrix:web fibers embedded in jellylike fluid/solid foundation
        
        fibroblasts:secrete fiber protein
        
        macrophages: engulf foreign particles/cell waste (phagocytosis)
        
        sparse population of cells scattered through the extracellular matrix; holds tissues/organs in place
        
        2. Reticular Fibers:joins connective tissues to adjacent tissues forming a net/mesh
        
        3. Elastic Fibers:make tissues elastic
        
        1. Collagenous Fibers: provide strength and flexibility
        
        Bone:skeleton, most vertebrate have a mineralized connective tissue
        
        osteoblast:bone forming cells deposit matrix of collagen. Calcium, Magnesium, Phosphate ions all combined into a hard mineral matrix
        
        Osteons:repeating units in bone,connective layers, of mineralized matrix deposit deposited around central canal
        
        Fibrous Connective Tissue:dense with collagenous fibers found in tendons and ligaments
        
        tendons:attach muscles to bones
        
        ligaments:connect bones to tissues
        
        Adipose Tissue:(fat) loose connective tissue that stores fat in the matrix. Pad/insulates store fuel as fat molecules. Fat droplet swells when fat is stored and shrinks as fat is used
        
        loose connective tissue:most wide spread, it binds epithelial to underlying tissues, holds organs in place. They are made of all 3 types of fibers
        
        connective tissue will turn into adipose tissue when weight is gained
        
        Cartilage:collagenous fibers in rubbery protein; carbohydrate (chondroitin sulfate)
        
        chrondocytes:cells that secrete collagen/chondroitin sulfate making cartilage strong/flexible. Cartilage can be replaced as embryo matures it acts as disk that cushions between vertebrate
        
        Blood:liquid extracellular matrix, plasma,consist of water, salts, dissolved proteins
        
        Erythrocytes: RBC that carry out O2
        
        Leukocytes: WBC that help fight defense
        
        no physical fibers but have the proteins that make up fibers
      - Muscle
        
        responsible for movement made of filaments of actin/myosin which cause muscle contractions
        
        2. Smooth Muscle: long oval shaped, causing involuntary body movement.
        
        having a single nucleus
        
        found in the digestive tract
        
        1. Skeletal muscle:attached to bone by tendons which cause voluntary movements
        
        made of bundles of long cells=muscle fibers
        
        multiple nuclei in each fiber
        
        striated:having a stripped appearance by the arrangement of fibers
        
        3. Cardiac Muscle:forms contractile wall of heart
        
        has branched fibbers interconnected by intercaladed disk
        
        has a striated appearance
        
        helps send signals from cell to cell
      - Epithelial
        
        sheets of cells that are inside lining the organ cavities, and covering the outside of the body
        
        tight junction=cells are tightly packed are able to protect against:
        
        pathogens
        
        makes us water proof keeping water in
        
        skin: mechanical injury
        
        they are all polarized= they have 2 different sides
        
        apical: faces lumen (cavity) the outside of the organs meaning they are exposed to the air or fluid
        
        they are usually covered with specialized projections
        
        Ex: microvilli
        
        basal: is the opposite side of the apical side
        
        Stratified Squamous Epithelium:multilayered, with rapid regeneration. New cells form by division near the basal surface. Found on surfaces that could get common abrasions
        
        Cuboidal Epithelium:Cube shaped cells that are involved in epithelial that involves secretion. Found in kidneys and glands
        
        Simple Columnar Epithelial: large bricked shaped cells found where secretion and active absorption occur, like the intestines in the digestive system
        
        Simple Squamous Epithelial:single layer plate like plate like cells. Functions in the exchange of materials by diffusion. They are thin and leaky for example the blood vessels, lungs.
        
        Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelial: single layered cells varying in height and position of their nuclei. Lines the respiratory tract
        
        layers:
        
        stratified: used to protect
        
        simple: single layer of cells
        
        pseudostratified: fake layers
        
        shape:
        
        squamous:flat
        
        columnar: tall skiny
        
        ciliated: has cilia
        
        cuboidal: cube shaped
        
        transitional: stretches
      - Nervous
        
        the receiver, processing, and transmission of information
        
        neurons:nerve cells transmit never impulses
        
        glial cells:support cells, that are concentration of nervous tissues that help process in the brain, replenish neurons, and modulate function
    - - Immune & Lymphatic
        
        Components: bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and lymph vessels
        
        Function: body defenses
      - Excretory
        
        Components: kidneys, ureters, bladders, urethra
        
        Function: disposal of metabolic waste, regulation of osmotic blood
      - Respiratory
        
        Components: Lungs, trachea, breathing tubes
        
        Functions: gas exchange
      - Endocrine
        
        Components: Pituitary,thyroid, pancreas, and adrenal hormones (secreting glands)
        
        Function: Coordinates body activities, and metabolism
      - Circulatory
        
        Components: hear, blood vessels, and blood
        
        Function:internal distribution of materials
      - Reproductive
        
        Components: Ovaries, testes
        
        Function: gamete production, fertilization, support embryo development
      - Digestive
        
        Components:mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines liver, pancreas, and anus
        
        Functions: food processing; ingestion, digestion, absorption, and elimination
      - Muscular
        
        Components: Skeletal Muscles
        
        Function: Locomotion
      - Nervous
        
        Components: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs
        
        Function: Coordinate body stimuli,and responses
      - Integumentary
        
        Components: skin, derivatives
        
        Function: protection against mechanical injury, infection, dehydration, thermo-regulation
      - Skeletal
        
        Components: Skeleton/bones
        
        Function: body support/protection/ movement
  - - - 2. Nervous System: neurons transmit signals along routes to specific locations
      - 1. Endocrine System: signaling molecules released into bloodstream by endocrine cells
    - - adaptive to environment
      - hormones:signaling molecules throughout body; different hormones cause different effects and different cell recipients
      - occur more gradually
    - - they happen quick
      - nerve impulses:travel to specific targets for through communication axons
      - ushally takes more than 1 signal
    - - in speed
      - in duration
      - in transmission
- - - - monitoring rate of heat loss because almost all chemical energy is heat
      - measuring the O2 consumed or CO2 produced by cellular respiration
      - long time measurements are done by recording food consumption (cal) and chemical energy lost in waste
  - - - larger animals means a larger body mass, the more chemical energy it uses
      - metabolic rate is roughly proportionate to size
      - energy it takes to maintain each gram of body mass is inversely related to size
        
        a mouse uses more energy per gram even though the elephant requires more cals
    - - max metabolic rate an animal can have is inversely related to duration of activity
      - dependent on size, behavior, thermoregulation
  - - - periodically animals get arousal raising body temp
      - metabolic rate lowers
      - thermostat drops
      - survive on limited stored energy
      - body temperature drops
      - circadian clock stops for some species
- - - - baleen beech whale filter feeds for plankton and removes small vertebrate
    - - Caterpillar
    - - hummingbird
      - mosquito
    - - humans
      - cows (most animals)
  - - - breaks down food in compartments that are continuous with the outside of animals body
      - allows the digestion of larger foods
      - gastrovascular cavity: digestive tube with a single opening. It functions as digestion with the help of hydrlytic enzymes and absorption of nutrients
    - - food moves along canal in a single direction
      - tube is organized in specialized compartments that allow digestion in steps
      - it is able to eat food while other food is being digested
- - - - insulin
      - glucagon
- - - - stimulus:fluctuation of a variable above/below set point
      - sensor:sends signals and detects stimuli (detected by sensor)
      - set point:value of homeostasis
      - response:a physiological activity that helps return the variable to its set point
      - Positive Feedback:amplifies stimulus
        
        does not play a major roll in homeostasis
        
        helps drive to a completion
        
        Ex: child birth, blood clotting, ovulation
        
        drives away from homeostasis
      - Negative Feedback:reduces the stimuli
        
        plays a roll in homeostasis
        
        helps drive org back sown to homeostasis
        
        Ex:sweating, blood sugar regulation
    - - Circadian Rhythm:cyclic alterations in metabolism, set of physiological change occurring every 24 hrs
      - regulated changes: changes that occur during a certain stage in life; changes the set point but are necessary
      - melatonin; severs as a biological clock
      - external stimuli of sets the internal clock it can take time to reset
      - acclimatization:animals physiological adjustment changes in its external environment
        
        temporary change not adaptation
        
        adjustment to environment