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Basic A&P and Nutrition (Ch. 41: Animal Nutrition (Animal's Diet…

- - - - physiology: biological function
    - - tissues: groups of cells with similar appearance and function
      - organs: tissues organized into functional units
      - organ system: groups of organs that work together
    - - layers
        
        simple: one
        
        stratified: many layers
        
        psudostratified: one layer but looks like diff. layers bc cells are diff. heights
      - shapes
        
        squamous: flat, squished cells that look like fried egg
        
        columnar: tall and skinny cells
        
        cuboidal: cube shaped with soft edges
        
        transitional: cells that stretch (bladder cells)
      - cover outside of body, line organs, outer membranes of organs
      - protect against injury, pathogens, and fluid loss
    - - holds tissues/organs together and in place
      - fibroblasts: cells that secrete fiber proteins
      - macrophages: cells that engulf foreign particles and cell debris by phagocytosis
      - loose connective tissue: binds skin to underlying tissue; found in skin and throughout body
      - fibrous connective: found in tendons (attach muscles to bones) and in ligaments (connect bones at joints)
      - bone: mineralized connective tissue
      - adipose tissue: loose connective tissue that stores fat in adipose cells; insulates body and stores fuel as fat molecules
      - cartilage: strong but flexible support material; embryos have cartilage before transforming into bones
      - blood: red (oxygen), white (defense) blood cells, and platelets (clotting) are suspended in plasma
    - - responsible for all body movements
      - proteins actin and myosin are found in all muscle cells to allow them to contract
      - skeletal: attached to bones by tendon; responsible for voluntary movements
      - smooth: found in walls of digestive tract, bladder, arteries; responsible for involuntary muscle movements
      - cardiac: forms contractile wall of heart and allows heart to contract
    - - receipt, processing, and transmission of info.
      - neurons (nerve cells): transmit nerve impulses
        
        dendrites, axon, axon terminals
      - glial cells: support cells that help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons
      - concentration of nervous tissue forms a brain
    - - digestive
        
        functions: food processing (ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination)
        
        major organs: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, intestines, liver, pancreas, anus
      - circulatory
        
        internal distribution of materials
        
        heart, blood vessels, blood
      - respiratory
        
        gas exchange (uptake of oxygen, disposal of CO2)
        
        lungs, trachea, other breathing tubes
      - immune and lymphatic
        
        body defense
        
        bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessels
      - excretory
        
        disposal of metabolic wastes; regulation of osmotic balance of blood
        
        kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
      - endocrine
        
        coordination of body activities (like digestion and metabolism)
        
        pituitary, thyroid, pancreas, adrenal, hormone-secreting glands
      - reproductive
        
        gamete production, promotion of fertilization, support of developing embryo
        
        ovaries, testes, and associated organs
      - nervous
        
        coordination of body activities, detection of stimuli and forming responses to them
        
        brain, spinal cord, nerves, sensory organs
      - integumentary
        
        protection against injury, infection, and dehydration; thermoregulation
        
        skin (hair, claws, sweat glands)
      - skeletal
        
        body support, protection of internal organs, movement
        
        skeleton (bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilage)
      - muscular
        
        locomotion
        
        skeletal muscles
    - - endocrine system: releases hormones into bloodstream and carries all around body where only cells with a specific receptor can accept hormones
        
        hormones can last for hours in bloodstream
      - nervous system: transmit signals along a specific path to target cells
        
        neurotransmitters are released and take effect in mere seconds
  - - - regulator: an animal that uses internal mechanisms to control internal change in the face of external fluctuation
        
        river otter
      - conformer: an animal that has its internal condition change in accordance with external changes
        
        largemouth bass
    - - maintenance of internal balance
      - parts of a feedback loop
        
        set point
        
        stimulus: change above/below set point; triggers a response
        
        sensor: detects stimulus
        
        response
      - negative feedback: reduces the stimulus until your body gets back to homeostasis
        
        ex. sweating to bring your body temp. down
        
        ex. shivering to get your body temp. back up
      - postive feedback: increases the stimulus until climax
        
        ex. birthing process (actual birth is homeostasis)
        
        ex. rising orgasm
  - - - endotherm: warmed by heat generated by metabolism (mammals)
      - ectotherm: gain most of their heat from external sources (reptiles, fish)
    - - integumentary system is involved
      - heat exchange
        
        radiation:sun radiates heat
        
        evaporation: has a strong cooling effect
        
        convection: air or liquid moves past something and takes heat away
        
        conduction: direct transfer of heat between objects
      - insulation
        
        hair, feathers, fat
        
        reduces the flow of heat between body and environment (mammals and birds)
      - circulatory
        
        blood is circulated to heat entire body
      - behavioral
        
        position of dragonfly's body so it can absorb/avoid heat
      - brown fat in neck and shoulders for rapid heat production
    - - has sensors responsible for thermoregulation
      - controls circadian clock
      - activates mechanisms that promote heat loss/gain
  - - - bioenergetics: overall flow and transformation of energy in an animal; determines nutritional needs
    - - measured in kilocalories
      - basal metabolic rate (BMR): min met. rate of a nongrowing endoderm that is at rest, has an empty stomach, and isn't experiencing stress
      - standard metabolic rate (SMR): met. rate of a fasting, nonstressed ectotherm at rest at a particular temp.
      - larger animals have more body mass and require more chemical energy
      - more activity means needs more energy and metabolic rate goes up
    - - hibernation
      - estivation: summer torpor
- - - - cattle, sea slugs, caterpillars
    - - sea otters, hawks, spiders
    - - humans, roaches, crows
    - - essential amino acids
        
        many animals need 8 of these
        
        meat, eggs, and cheese provide all of these in proper proportions (problems for vegans)
      - essential fatty acids: can be obtained from seeds, grains, veggies
      - vitamins: organic molecules required in small amounts
        
        13 are required for humans
        
        overdose of water-soluble vitamins are peed out and not harmful
        
        overdose of fat-soluble vitamins are stored in body fat at toxic levels (if you lose weight, these vitamins will appear all at once and can kill you)
      - minerals: inorganic nutrients needed in small amounts
        
        too many minerals can cause health problems (ex. too much sodium causes high blood pressure)
    - - insufficient intake of essential nutrients can cause deformities, disease, and death
      - malnutrition ex. protein deficiencies in vegans
      - undernourishment
        
        body uses up stored carbs and fat, then protein (eats at your muscles)
  - - - filter feeding (ex. whales)
      - substrate feeding: animal lives in/on food source (ex. caterpillars on leaves)
      - fluid feeding: suck nutrients from host's fluids (ex. mosquitos)
      - bulk feeding: eat relatively large pieces of food (ex. python ingesting a gazelle)
    - - intracellular digestion
        
        food vacuoles inside cells contain enzymes that break down molecules
        
        phagocytosis/pinocytosis
        
        sponges digest their food this way
      - extracellular digestion
        
        breakdown of food outside of cells
        
        enables animal to eat larger pieces of food bc has specialized organs to digest instead of relying on digestion on a cellular level
        
        small animals have a gastrovascular cavity: pouch that digests and sends out nutrients to rest of body
        
        ex. hydras and flatworms have this pouch to digest their food
        
        alimentary canal: complete digestive tract from mouth to anus
        
        tube can be separated into diff. compartments like in humans or can remain simple like in earthworms
        
        allows animals to ingest food while earlier meals are still being digested
  - - - oral cavity is where physical digestion begins
      - salivary glands release saliva which contains salivary amylase to break down starch and glycogen
      - mucus: viscous mixture of salts, water, cells to lubricate food and protects gums and teeth from acids
      - bolus: ball of food and saliva that travels down pharynx and esophagus
        
        food is pushed along by persitalsis
    - - sphincter opens to let bolus into stomach
      - gastric juice
        
        hydrochloric acid
        
        has pH of 2 to denature proteins and kill bacteria
        
        pepsin (a protease) begins to break down the exposed peptide bonds into smaller peptides
      - chyme: mixture of gastric juices and digesting food
      - gastric juices don't damage the stomach bc new epithelial lining is created every 3 days before old lining is completely eroded
        
        infection by Helicobacter pylori (bacteria) causes ulcers in stomach lining, so antibiotics cure stomach ulcers
      - stomach churns every 20 seconds
        
        chyme empties into small intestine about 2-6 hours after a meal
        
        acid reflux ("heartburn") irritates esophagus
    - - over 20 feet long
      - digestion
        
        1st 10 inches = duodenum
        
        chyme from stomach gets mixed with digestive juices from pancreas, liver, and gallbladder
        
        arrival of chyme triggers release of hormone secretin, which triggers pancreas to secrete bicarbonate (neutralizes acidity of chyme and acts as a buffer for chemical digestion in duodenum)
        
        proteases finish breaking down proteins
        
        bile is secreted liver and stored by gallbladder until small int. needs it
        
        enzymes used
        
        pancreatic amylase to break down polysaccharides
        
        pancreatic trypsin, chymotrypsin, and carboxypeptidase (proteases break down polypeptides)
        
        pancreatic nucleases: break down nucleic acids into nucleotides
        
        disaccharidases break down disaccharides into monosaccharides
        
        dipeptidases, carboxypeptidase, and aminopeptidase break down small polypeptides into amino acids
        
        nucleotidases: break down nucleotides into nucleosides
        
        nucleosidases and phosphatases break down nucleosides into nitrogen bases, sugars, and phosphates
      - absorption
        
        remaining parts of small int. (jejunum and ileum) absorb nutrients
        
        made possible by villi (small projections)
        
        microvilli are small projections in cells of villi
        
        nutrients are carried in blood away from villi and converge in hepatic portal vein (blood vessel that leads directly into liver)
        
        liver detoxifies blood before sending it to circulate around body
      - digestion and absorption of fats
        
        bile salts turn fat globules into fat droplets
        
        then, lipase breaks down fat droplets into fatty acids and monoglicerides that are absorbed by villi and enter the small intestine's epithelial cells
        
        inside the cells, chylomicrons are formed from fatty acids and monoglycerides (triglicerides) and covered by phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins (water-soluble)
        
        chylomicrons leave cells and enter lacteals
    - - cecum: little pouch at beginning of large int. (important for animals that eat a lot of plants)
        
        appendix: little projection hanging off cecum thought to have served as a reservoir for bacteria
      - rest of large int. is called the colon
        
        absorbs water from digested material (what remains is feces)
        
        takes 12-24 hours for waste to travel length of colon by peristalsis
        
        problems: diarrhea and constipation
        
        fiber helps move waste along colon
        
        1/3 of feces is bacteria that live on and digest it
        
        colon bacteria produce methane and hydrogen sulfide (farts)
      - rectum: terminal portion of colon where feces are stored
        
        2 sphincters between rectum and anus
  - - - carnivores have more and bigger canines (to rip apart meat) than molars
      - herbivores have more molars to grind plants
      - omnivores have same sized canines and molars
    - - some carnivores have expandable stomachs for all the meat they eat in one sitting
      - herbivores and omnivores have longer alimentary canals than carnivores bc plant matter is difficult to digest (cell walls)
    - - 10-100 trillion bacteria live in human digestive system
      - microbiome: microorganisms living in/on body
      - herbivores have bacteria and protists (found in cecum) that digest cellulose into simple sugars that they can use
  - - - some animals have digestive systems that aren't continuously active bc they go through long gaps between meals
      - when food reaches the next organ, enzymes and acids are activated for the next stage of processing
      - enteric nervous system: network of neurons that controls muscle movements (peristalsis) in digestive system
      - endocrine system controls digestion by releasing hormones
        
        hormones released in stomach and duodenum ensure that digestive juices are only present when needed
        
        gastrin: stimulates production of stomach juices
        
        cholecystokinin (CCK): stimulates the release of digestive enzymes from pancreas and of bile from gallbladder
        
        secretin: stimulates pancreas to release bicarbonate, which neutralizes chyme
        
        appetite-regulating hormones
        
        ghrelin: secreted by stomach wall, triggers feelings of hunger
        
        insulin and PYY: secreted by small intestine after eating, suppress appetite
        
        leptin: produced by fat tissue to suppress appetite
      - glycogen=stored glucose
    - - caused by a deficiency of insulin in target tissues
      - insulin decreases blood glucose concentration
      - glucagon is secreted to release glucose into blood
      - Type 1
        
        insulin-dependent
        
        autoimmune disorder in which immune system destroys pancreas' beta cells, which destroys person's ability to produce insulin
        
        appears in childhood
        
        treatment: insulin injections during the day
      - Type 2
        
        non-insulin dependent
        
        insulin is produced, but target cells fail to break down glucose in blood, blood glucose levels remain elevated
        
        caused by excess body weight and no exercise
        
        appears after age 40, but obese children are starting to develop it
        
        90% of ppl with diabetes have this type
        
        can be treated with regular exercise and healthy diet