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Basic Principles of Animal Form, Function and Nutrition (Chapter 40…

- - - - https://www.studeersnel.nl/nl/document/universiteit-utrecht/biologie-van-dieren/samenvattingen/samenvatting-biology-a-global-approach-with-masteringbiology-global-epithelial-tissue/813960/view
      - Epithelial Tissue
      - Connective Tissue
      - https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/4-3-connective-tissue-supports-and-protects/
      - Muscle Tissue
      - https://opentextbc.ca/anatomyandphysiology/chapter/4-4-muscle-tissue-and-motion/
  - - - Negative feedback- a control mechanism that damps its stimulus
      - Positive feedback- is a control mechanism that amplifies the stimulus
      - Circadian rhythm- a set of physiological changes that occur roughly every 24 hours
      - Acclimation- an animal's physiological adjustment to change in its external environment
- - - - Ingestion- the act of eating or feeding
      - Digestion- food is broken down into smaller particles for the body to absorb
      - Absorption- the animal's cells take up the small particles
      - Elimination- undigested material passes out of the digestion material
    - - Filter feeders- strain small organisms or food particles from their surroundings
      - Bulk feeders- which eat relatively large pieces of food
      - Fluid feeders- suck nutrient-rich fluid from a living host
      - Substrate feeding- are animals that live in or on their food source
    - - Extracellular Digestion in Simple Body Plans
        
        Gastrovascular cavity- functions in digestion and distribution of nutrients throughout the body
        
        Alimentary canal- Digestive tube with two openings, mouth and anus
      - Organs for Sequential Stages
        
        Oral Cavity, Pharynx, and Esophagus
        
        Oral cavity- mouth
        
        Salivary glands- release of saliva
        
        Mucus- makes food easier to swallow, a mixture of cells, salts, water, and glycoproteins
        
        Amylase- breaks down starch and glycogen
        
        Bolus- food shaped into a ball
        
        Pharynx- leads to the esophagus and trachea
        
        Esophagus- muscular tube that connects to the stomach
        
        Peristalsis- alternating waves and contractions of smooth muscle in the esophagus to help push food down
        
        Sphincter- a ringlike valve of muscle acting like a drawstring, it regulates passage of the ingested food
        
        Digestion in the Stomach
        
        Stomach- turns food into liquid and store food
        
        Chyme- ingested food and gastric juice
        
        Gastric juice- mixes with food in a churn action
        
        Chemical Digestion in Stomach
        
        Pepsin- enzyme that breaks down protein
        
        Pepsinogen- is a powerful and abundant protein digestive enzyme secreted by the gastric chief cells as a proenzyme and then converted by gastric acid in the gastric lumen to the active enzyme pepsin.
        
        Digestion in the Small Intestine
        
        Small intestine- is the alimentary canal's longest compartment
        
        Duodenum- the first 25 cm of the small intestine
        
        Pancreas- secretes bicarbonate (neutralizes the acidity of chyme)
        
        Bile- secretion of the liver that is stored in the gallbladder
        
        Villi- finger-shaped projections
        
        Microvilli- microscopic projections
        
        Hepatic portal vein- blood vessel that leads to the liver
        
        Chylomicrons- A small fat globule composed of protein and lipid (fat). Chylomicrons are found in the blood and lymphatic fluid where they serve to transport fat from its port of entry in the intestine to the liver and to adipose (fat) tissue.
        
        Lacteal- the lymphatic vessels of the small intestine which absorb digested fats.
        
        Digestion in the Large Intestine
        
        Large intestine- includes colon, cecum and rectum
        
        Cecum- fermenting ingested material
        
        Colon- leads to the rectum and anus
        
        Appendix- extension of the cecum that serves as a reservoir for symbiotic microorganisms
        
        Feces- waste of the digestion system
        
        Rectum- stores feces until ready to be eliminated
        
        Microbiome- collection of microorganisms
    - - Regulation of digestion- many animals face long gaps between meals
      - Regulation of energy storage- when there is excess energy it is stored
      - Glucose homeostasis- relies on two hormones to concentrate glucose
      - Insulin- decreases blood sugar
      - Glucagon- promotes the release of glucose
      - Diabetes mellitus- caused by a deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to insulin in target tissues
      - Type 1 diabetes- your pancreas isn’t making insulin or is making very little.
      - Type 2 diabetes- is a chronic condition that affects the way your body metabolizes sugar (glucose) — an important source of fuel for your body, usually occurs with obesity