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Biology (The living cell Cell (Beneficial tasks of Bacteria (Bacteria are…

- - - - A plasma membrane that encloses the cell and separates it from its environment.
      - Internal membranes, such as the endoplasmic reticulum and the
        Golgi apparatus, which create specialized compartments inside the cells.
      - A cytoskeleton made of proteins that reinforces the cells and controls cellular movements.
      - Organelles called mitochondria that combine oxygen and food to
        transfer the energy from food to a form that cells can use.
      - Organelles called chloroplasts, which use energy from sunlight plus water and carbon dioxide to make food. (Chloroplasts are found only in the cells of plants and algae.)
      - A rigid cell wall outside of their plasma membrane. (This is found
        only in the cells of plants, algae, and fungi; animal cells just have a plasma membrane, which is soft.)
      - A nucleus that stores their genetic information or DNA.
    - - plasma membrane
        
        Transporting materials (selectively permeable)
        
        Passive transport
        
        Diffusion: The movement of molecules other than water from an
        area where they’re highly concentrated to an area where they’re less concentrated is diffusion.
        
        Osmosis: The movement of water across a membrane. Basically,
        water moves from areas where it’s more concentrated (more pure) to areas where it’s less concentrated (where it has more solutes).
        
        requires no energy
        
        Active transport: requires some energy from the cell to move molecules that can’t cross the phospholipid bilayer on their own from where they’re less concentrated to where they’re more concentrated.
        
        Carrier proteins called active transport proteins or protein pumps, use energy stored in use energy stored in the cell to concentrate molecules inside or outside of the cell.
        
        Proteins
        
        carrier proteins: Small molecules such as hormones and ions may be allowed to pass through these protein channels
        
        channels: pick up molecules (the sugar glucose, for example) on one side of a membrane and then drop them off on the other side.
        
        receptors: detect the presence of different
        types of molecules, such as the hormone insulin. Molecules bind to their receptors, they produce a response in the cell.
        
        For example, the binding of a specific molecule with its receptor on muscle cells causes muscle contraction.
        
        separate the chemical reactions
        occurring inside the cell from the chemicals outside the cell.
        
        Animal cells are supported by a fluid protein-and-carbohydrate matrix called the extracellular matrix.
        
        Plant cells are supported by a more solid structure, called a cell wall, that’s made of the carbohydrate cellulose.
        
        cytoplasm: The fluid inside a cell
        
        fluid-mosaic model
        
        Each phospholipid molecule has a hydrophilic head that’s attracted to water and a hydrophobic tail that repels water.
        
        In each cell, the hydrophilic heads point toward the watery
        environments outside and inside the cell, sandwiching the hydrophobic tails between them to form the phospholipid bilayer. Because cells reside in a watery solution (the extracellular matrix), and because they contain a watery solution inside of them (cytoplasm), the plasma membrane forms a sphere around each cell so that the water-attracting heads are in contact with the fluid, and the water-repelling tails are protected on the inside.
        
        Cholesterol and carbohydrates
        
        Cholesterol makes the membrane more stable and prevents it from solidifying when your body temperature is low. (It keeps you from literally freezing when you’re “freezing.”)
        
        Carbohydrate chains attach to the outer surface of the plasma membrane on each cell. carbohydrates attach to the phospholipids, they form glycolipids (and when they attach to the proteins, they form glycoproteins).
        
        Your DNA determines which specific carbohydrates attach to your cells, affecting characteristics such as your blood type.
      - The cytoskeleton
      - The nucleus
      - Ribosomes
      - The endoplasmic
        reticulum
      - The Golgi
        apparatus
      - Lysosomes
      - Peroxisomes
      - Mitochondria
      - Chloroplasts
- - - - Mass vs Weight
        
        The moon is so much smaller than Earth that it has a lot less gravity to pull on your mass. So, your weight on the moon would be just one-sixth of your weight on Earth, but your mass would remain the same.
  - - - Isotope is an element with the number of neutrons differing between two atoms of the same element.
    - - Acid & Base Molecules
        
        Acids: molecules that can split apart in water and release
        
        hydrogen ions (H+). Ex. HCl
        
        Base: molecules that can split apart in water and release
        
        hydroxide ions (OH–). Ex. NaOH
        
        pH scale: system of classifying how acidic or basic a solution is
        
        The pH scale
        goes from 1 to 14.
        
        Buffers keep solutions at a steady pH by combining with excess
        hydrogen (H+) or hydroxide (OH–) ions.
        
        Handy neutralizer: A system of buffers exists to help neutralize the blood if excess hydrogen or hydroxide ions are produced.
        
        Basic pH: A solution that contains more hydroxide ions than hydrogen ions is basic, and its pH is higher than 7.
        
        Acidic pH A solution that contains more hydrogen ions than hydroxide ions is acidic, and the pH of the solution is less than 7. If a molecule releases hydrogen ions in water, it’s an acid. The more hydrogen ions it releases, the stronger the acid, and the lower the pH value.
        
        Proportion of H+
        pH symbolizes the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution
        (what proportion of a solution contains hydrogen ions)
    - - Ionic bonds: Hold ions joined by their opposite electrical charges. Ionic reactions occur when atoms combine and lose or gain electrons.
      - Covalent bonds: form when atoms share electrons in a covalent reaction
  - - - Formula: CH2O
      - Function
        
        Reserve of Energy: A source of near-immediate energy. Reserves of carbohydrates in the body must be replenished frequently, which is why you find yourself hungry every four hours or so
        
        Stored in Polysaccharides: Because glucose provides a rapid source of energy, organisms often keep some on hand. They store it in various polysaccharides that can be quickly broken down when glucose is needed.
        
        Glycogen: Animals, including people, store a polysaccharide of glucose called glycogen. It has a compact structure, so cells can store a lot of it for later use. Your liver, in particular, keeps a large glycogen reserve on hand for when you exercise.
        
        Starch: Plants store glucose as the polysaccharide starch
        
        the carbohydrates from it break down into
        small sugars such as glucose
      - Forms of Carbohydrates
        
        Monosaccharides
        
        Disaccharides
        
        Oligosaccharides
        
        Polysaccharides
        
        dehydration synthesis: When glucose and fructose get together, a water molecule is removed from the monosaccharides and given off as a byproduct of the reaction.
        
        When glucose and fructose get together, a water molecule is removed from the monosaccharides and given off as a byproduct of the reaction.
        
        hydrolysis: The opposite of dehydration synthesis is hydrolysis. A reaction breaks down a larger sugar molecule into it’s original monosaccharides.When something undergoes hydrolysis, a water molecule splits a compound. When sucrose is added to water, it splits apart into glucose and fructose.
    - - Without proteins, living things wouldn’t exist. Fuctions:
        
        proteins provide
        structure to cells
        
        Collagen,a structural protein found in connective tissue, is the most abundant protein in animals with a backbone.
        
        bind to and carry important molecules
        throughout the body: Transport Proteins
        
        Hemoglobin is a transport protein in red blood cells that
        carries oxygen around the body.
        
        Some proteins are involved in reactions in the body
        when they serve as enzymes
        
        Enzymes are proteins that speed up the rate of chemical
        reactions
        
        muscle
        contraction or immune responses.
      - The building blocks of proteins: Amino acids
        
        The genetic information in cells (the DNA) calls for amino acids to link together in a certain order, forming chains called polypeptide chains.
        
        Amino acids link together by dehydration synthesis, just like sugars do
    - - Nucleic acids are large molecules that carry tons of small details,
        specifically all the genetic information for an organism.
        
        Nucleic acids are made up of strands of nucleotides. Each
        nucleotide has three components:
        
        A nitrogen-containing base called a nitrogenous base
        
        sugar that contains five-carbon molecules
        
        A phosphate group
        
        two types of nucleic acids
        
        Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
        
        “sugar-phosphate backbone.”
        
        sugar in DNA is deoxyribose
        
        “rungs” on the ladder of DNA are
        made from pairs of nitrogenous bases from the two strands. Base pairs form by hydrogen bonds.
        
        1 more item...
        
        Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
        
        plays an important role in the
        creation of new proteins
        
        RNA is slightly different from
        that of DNA
        
        3 more items...
    - - Dense: fats have incredible energy density (the ability to store lots of calories in a small space)
      - Scared of Water - Lipids are hydrophobic molecules, meaning they don’t mix well with water.
      - Three major types of lipid molecules
        
        Phospholipids
        
        Chemical Structure: made up of two fatty acids and a
        phosphate group
        
        Phospholipids aren’t the type of lipid floating around the bloodstream clogging arteries.
        
        Steroids
        
        Chemical Structure: cconsisting of four connecting carbon rings and a functional group that determines the steroid, generally create hormones.
        
        Cholesterol is a steroid molecule used to make testosterone and estrogen; it’s also found in the membranes of cells.
        
        Negative: fats and cholesterol molecules can get stuck in your blood vessels, leading to blockages that cause heart attacks or strokes.
        
        Triglycerides
        
        Chemical Structure: made up of three fatty acid molecules and a glycerol molecule
        
        Function: important for energy
        storage and insulation
        
        Extra Fat: In people, fats form from an excess of
        glucose. After the liver stores all the glucose it can as glycogen,
        whatever remains is turned into triglycerides.
        
        Expending Glycogen: Liver glycogen stores can typically last 12 or more hours. After that, your body starts breaking down adipose tissue to retrieve some stored energy.
        
        triglycerides float through your bloodstream on their way to be deposited into adipose tissue — the soft, squishy fat you can see on your body.
        
        Triglyceride State
        
        Fats contain lots of single bonds between their carbon atoms. These saturated bonds pack tightly, so fats are solid at room temperature.
        
        Oils contain lots of double bonds between their carbon atoms.
        These unsaturated bonds don’t pack tightly, so oils are liquid at room temperature.