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LEARNING (Unlearned behaviors (instincts (aging and the change of seasons.…

- - - - types
        
        unconditioned (unlearned) responses, or reflexes (UCR) - salivation
        
        a natural (unlearned)
        reaction to a given stimulus
        
        conditioned (learned) responses (CR) - salivation
        
        a behavior caused by the conditioned stimulus
        
        unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - meat powder
        
        a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response
        in an organism.
        
        conditioned stimulus (CS) - tone
        
        a stimulus that elicits a response after repeatedly being paired with an unconditioned stimulus.
        
        neutral stimulus (NS) - tone
        
        a stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response
        
        higher-order conditioning / second-order conditioning
        
        squeaky cabinet - electric opener - cat food
        
        extends beyond food
        
        electrical shock - edge of the yard - dog stays within the boundaries
        
        Pavlov’s area of interest was the digestive
        system. Pavlov came to his conclusions about how learning occurs completely by accident. Pavlov was a
        physiologist, not a psychologist.
      - general process
        
        acquisition
        
        interval can be up to several hours
        
        chicken curry (CS) - sick (UCS) - taste aversion (UCR/CR)
        
        evolutionary adaptation designed to help organisms quickly learn to avoid harmful foods
        
        develop strategies for challenges such as helping cancer patients through the nausea induced by certain treatments
        
        extinction
        
        spontaneous recovery
        
        stimulus discrimination
        
        stimulus generalization
        
        habituation
        
        we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change.
    - - stimulus timing
        
        classic conditioning
        
        The stimulus occurs immediately
        before the response.
        
        operant conditioning
        
        The stimulus (either reinforcement or punishment) occurs soon after the response.
      - Edward Thorndike (1911)
        
        Law of effect
        
        consequences satisfying → behaviors more likely to be repeated
        
        unpleasant consequences → behaviors less likely to be repeated
      - B. F. Skinner
        
        Skinner box (1938)
        
        Teaching machine (1961)
        
        reward small steps in learning (游戏化运营)
        
        Shaping
        
        stimulus discrimination
      - Specialized terms
        
        Positive
        
        added
        
        Negative
        
        removed
        
        Reinforcement
        
        increasing a behavior
        
        primary reinforcer
        
        innate reinforcing qualities(not learned): water, food, sleep, shelter, sex, pleasure, and touch, etc.
        
        secondary reinforcer
        
        linked with a primary reinforcer: praise, money, stickers.
        
        token economies, Cangi and Daly (2013)
        
        Punishment
        
        decreasing a behavior
      - Reinforcement
        
        positive reinforcement
        
        most effective
        
        paid to read (Fryer, 2010)
        
        sticker charts
        
        negative reinforcement
        
        seatbelt systems
      - Punishment
        
        positive punishment
        
        scolding a student
        
        negative punishment
        
        take away a child's favorite toy
        
        time-out
        
        drawbacks
        
        punishment may teach fear
        
        fear the teacher and try to avoid school
        
        children → aggressive / antisocial behavior / delinquency
        
        psychologists and parenting experts favor
        reinforcement over punishment
      - Reinforcement Schedules
        
        The BEST way
        
        positive reinforcement
        
        The QUICKEST way
        
        continuous reinforcement
        
        partial reinforcement (intermittent reinforcement)
        
        Fixed interval
        
        higher quality of output
        
        least productive and the easiest to extinguish
        
        Variable interval
        
        Fixed ratio
        
        better suited to optimize the quantity of output,
        
        Variable ratio
        
        most powerful : gambling :warning:
        
        most productive and the most resistant to extinction
        
        turn a pigeon into a pathological gambler (“Skinner’s Utopia,” 1971)
        
        pathological gambling is an addiction similar to a chemical addiction, like cocaine.
    - - John B. Watson , founder of behaviorism
        
        influenced by Pavlov’s work
        
        human behavior, just like animal behavior, is primarily the result of conditioned responses.
      - Watson championed the idea that all behavior can be studied as a simple stimulus-response reaction, without regard for internal processes
        
        Move away from internal mental process because it can not be seen, and shift to observable behavior that can be measured.
      - Little Albert, Watson and Rayner (1920)
        
        produce a phobia through conditioning alone, thus countering Freud's view that phobias are caused by deep, hidden conflicts in the mind.
        
        Little Albert also demonstrated stimulus generalization—he became afraid of other furry things