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chapter 42 and 44 (42 (lymph circulation (lots of fluid leaks from blood…

- - - - regulation of blood pressure
        
        vasoconstriction and vasodilation move blood through arteries
      - blood pressure and gravity
        
        it takes significant blood pressure to pump blood across the whole body when standing up
        
        normal human blood pressure is about 120 millimeters of mercury
        
        blood pressure is very high for animals with long necks
        
        muscles in the walls of veins help fight gravity while blood travels from the feet to the heart
      - blood pressure during cardiac cycle
        
        blood pressure is highest during systole, when the heart pushes blood through the body, this stretches out all the arteries, causing pulse that you can feel in your wrist and neck
  - - - this fluid, called lymph, goes through the lymphatic system and drains into large veins at the base of the neck
    - - a parasite can lodge itself in the lymph vessels and block flow, causing elephantiasis
  - - - arterioles -take blood within organs to capillaries
        
        capillaries -thin vessels with microscopic porous walls
        
        capillary beds -networks of capillaries that infiltrate tissues. this is where diffusion and substance exchange takes place
        
        venules -converge into veins
        
        veins -take blood back to heart
  - - - eurythrocytes
        
        red blood cells, most numerous blood cells. they are shaped like flat disks and are filled with hemoglobin for transporting O2, their main function. they have no nucleus.
      - leukocytes
        
        fight infections, some are phagocytic. can leave blood vessels
      - plasma
        
        proteins and dissolved salts.
        
        substances in transit such metabolic waste, respiratory gases and hormones
        
        effects osmotic balance and interstitial fluids
      - platelets
        
        cytoplasmic fragments from bone marrow, structural and for bone clotting
  - - - much like that of a mammal, but with the left and right ventricle not completely separated. this way they can cut off flow to the lungs when swimming and breath through their skin
    - - two atrium and two ventricles, right atrium sucks blood from body, right ventricle sends it to lungs. left atrium sucks blood from lungs, left ventricle sends blood to body
    - - one atrium and one ventricle, since they have single circulation
  - - - outfoldings of the body suspended in water. only used by aquatic animals
        
        they use countercurrent exchange, where blood with more oxygen is put into contact with less oxygenated water and blood with less oxygen is put into contact with more oxygenated water
    - - a network of air tubes that branch throughout the body
        
        in flies, their muscle systems quickly pump air through the tubes when flying
    - - the surface on an animal where O2 is exchanged for CO2. the exchange membranes must be in contact with an aqueous solution
        
        there also has to be a large surface area. when an organism's skin is not sufficient, it has an organ with lots of infolded membranes like lungs, gills or tracheae
    - - mammal respiratory systems
        
        trachea brings air to the bronchi and then bronchioles, which branch out and end in alveoli
        
        the alveoli have a moist thin exchange surface
      - sacs with exchange surfaces on the inside. partnered with the circulatory system to bring O2 all over the body
  - - - circulatory systems have three parts
        
        circulating fluid that goes all throughout the body to allow cells do to gas exchange,
        
        a heart to pump the fluid
        
        interconnecting vessels to hold it
      - circulatory system organization
        
        single
        
        blood travels through one loop of circulation, from heart to gills, to body and back to the heart.
        
        this kind of circulation is used by fish
        
        double
        
        blood travels in two loops, one from heart to lungs and back, and another from heart throughout body and back
        
        this kind is used by mammals
      - kinds of circulatory systems
        
        closed
        
        blood is separate from interstitial fluid and is confined to branching blood vessels, helps regulate blood supply to various organs
        
        open
        
        a heart pumps hemolymph throughout body cavity, arthropods and some mollusks
  - - - two air sacs on either side of lungs. in one breath the bottom one fills and during exhalation is pushed into lungs, in another breath it fills the top sac, then is exhaled out the body
    - - air exhaled in each breath is tidal volume. it averages 500 mL in humans
        
        maximum tidal volume is vital capacity
        
        the air remaining in the lungs is residual capacity
      - breath is usually regulated involuntarily by the medulla oblongata based on CO2 levels
      - negative pressure, diaphram pulls open sacs and they are forced full of air
        
        cohesion tension sticks together the layers of lung and diaphragm
    - - gulps down air with positive pressure, elastic recoil of lungs pushes air back out
- - - - ammonia combined with CO2 in liver. costs energy to make, but low toxicity
        
        mostly land animals
    - - synthesized from ammonia using ATP
        
        insects, snails, reptiles and birds
    - - very toxic, needs to be diluted with lots of water
        
        mostly aquatic animals, invertebrates diffuse it through their whole skin
        
        amphibians can switch between the two
  - - - reabsorption -useful molecules from the filtrate are recovered into body fluid
      - filtrate -the result of filtration
      - excretion -filtrate is removed from the body as urine
      - filtration -a body fluid such as blood or hemolymph is filtered by a selectively permeable membrane
    - - metanphridia
        
        a pair in each segment and a hole for each one, dilute urine makes up for net intake of water
        
        earthworms
      - malpighian tubules
        
        tubes collect waste and add it to feces
        
        insects
      - protonpchridia
        
        cap cells filter and send out into external environment
        
        flatworms
      - kidneys
        
        complicated blood filters filled with nephron structures for reclaiming from filtrate, vertebrates and chordates
        
        vertebrates and chordates
  - - - mostly osmoconformers, but regulate specific solutes
        
        like the Atantic lobster and their Mg concentration
      - some osmoregulate, such as bony fish and sharks
        
        the cod drinks lots of seawater and filters out salt in kidney
        
        TMAO protects proteins from denaturing because of urea in sharks
        
        it also helps them be hyperosmotic to the ocean
      - face the problem of losing all their water to osmosis with the sea
    - - face the problem of gaining too much water because their insides are hypertonic to fresh water
      - drink very little and produce lots of dilute urine
  - - - ascending limb of loop of henle
        
        permeable to salt but not water
        
        salt diffuses out passively during the thin segment because of it's high concentration
        
        in the thick limb salt is actively transported
      - distal tubule
        
        more salt, water and HCO3- are transported out, K+ and H+ are transported in. levels vary as part of blood regulation
      - descending limb of loop of henle
        
        permeable to water but not salt
        
        water is passively transported out along its whole length
      - collecting duct
        
        hormones control the permeability to for osmotic regulation
      - proximal tubule
        
        nutrients are passively transported out
        
        H+ is activly transported in, and NH3 is used to trap it as ammonia
        
        K+ is passively transported out
        
        water follows by diffusion
        
        HCO3- is passively transported out
        
        Na+ is actively transported out of the filtrate and into the interstitial fluid. Cl- follows passively
      - glomerulus
        
        a network of capillaries within the bowman's capsule. it is a dead end which blood is pushed through. the membrane is semipermeable
        
        salts, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, nitrogenous wastes, and other small molecules are pushed out
  - - - osmolarity -the number of moles of salt per liter of solution
        
        average human osmolarity is about 300 milliosmoles per liter
      - hyperosmotic -solution with a higher concentration of solutes
        
        hypoosmotic -solution with a lower concentration of solutes
        
        isoosmotic -two solutions have the same molarity
    - - osmoconformer -isosmotic with surroundings (only marine animals)
      - osmoregulator -control internal osmolarity different from the environment
        
        must get rid of water when in a hypoosmotic environment like freshwater, and gain more water when in hyperosmotic environment like seawater
      - euryhaline -can tolerate significant osmotic changes, for example, barnicles, muscles, striped bass and salmon
        
        stenohaline -can't tolerate much changes in osmolarity of environment
    - - When there is a membrane permeable to water but not salt (or some other solute), then water will naturally cross to the side with more salt until the salinity is even on both sides