chapter 42 and 44

42

44

blood pressure

lymph circulation

cardiovascular system branches into smaller and smaller arteries that connect to veins that get bigger and bigger

blood

types of hearts

respiratory organs

circulatory systems

breathing

which organisms produce ammonia, urea, or uric acid wastes

major excretory organs and their functions

freshwater v marine animals

parts of nephrons and functions

osmosis

circulatory needs -all cells need access to nutrients and oxygen. single celled organisms, or those only a few cells wide can get these directly from the environment, but for larger animals, something more complicated is needed

circulatory systems have three parts

circulating fluid that goes all throughout the body to allow cells do to gas exchange,

a heart to pump the fluid

circulatory system organization

single

double

kinds of circulatory systems

closed

open

interconnecting vessels to hold it

a heart pumps hemolymph throughout body cavity, arthropods and some mollusks

blood is separate from interstitial fluid and is confined to branching blood vessels, helps regulate blood supply to various organs

blood travels through one loop of circulation, from heart to gills, to body and back to the heart.

blood travels in two loops, one from heart to lungs and back, and another from heart throughout body and back

this kind of circulation is used by fish

this kind is used by mammals

amphibians

mammal

fish

one atrium and one ventricle, since they have single circulation

two atrium and two ventricles, right atrium sucks blood from body, right ventricle sends it to lungs. left atrium sucks blood from lungs, left ventricle sends blood to body

much like that of a mammal, but with the left and right ventricle not completely separated. this way they can cut off flow to the lungs when swimming and breath through their skin

arteries -take blood from heart to organs

arterioles -take blood within organs to capillaries

capillaries -thin vessels with microscopic porous walls

capillary beds -networks of capillaries that infiltrate tissues. this is where diffusion and substance exchange takes place

venules -converge into veins

veins -take blood back to heart

blood moves from high pressure to low pressure, this is how the heart pumps it

regulation of blood pressure

blood pressure and gravity

blood pressure during cardiac cycle

blood pressure is highest during systole, when the heart pushes blood through the body, this stretches out all the arteries, causing pulse that you can feel in your wrist and neck

vasoconstriction and vasodilation move blood through arteries

it takes significant blood pressure to pump blood across the whole body when standing up

blood pressure is very high for animals with long necks

muscles in the walls of veins help fight gravity while blood travels from the feet to the heart

lots of fluid leaks from blood vessels every day. it is returned by the lymphatic system

this fluid, called lymph, goes through the lymphatic system and drains into large veins at the base of the neck

the lymphatic system also transfers lipids from the small intestine to the blood

the lymphatic system circulates using contraction of vessels, valves, and movement of skelatal muscles

during infection lymph nodes swell and produce white blood cells

a parasite can lodge itself in the lymph vessels and block flow, causing elephantiasis

parts

eurythrocytes

leukocytes

plasma

platelets

normal human blood pressure is about 120 millimeters of mercury

proteins and dissolved salts.

effects osmotic balance and interstitial fluids

substances in transit such metabolic waste, respiratory gases and hormones

red blood cells, most numerous blood cells. they are shaped like flat disks and are filled with hemoglobin for transporting O2, their main function. they have no nucleus.

fight infections, some are phagocytic. can leave blood vessels

cytoplasmic fragments from bone marrow, structural and for bone clotting

gills

tracheal systems

respiratory surfaces

lungs

mammal respiratory systems

the surface on an animal where O2 is exchanged for CO2. the exchange membranes must be in contact with an aqueous solution

there also has to be a large surface area. when an organism's skin is not sufficient, it has an organ with lots of infolded membranes like lungs, gills or tracheae

outfoldings of the body suspended in water. only used by aquatic animals

they use countercurrent exchange, where blood with more oxygen is put into contact with less oxygenated water and blood with less oxygen is put into contact with more oxygenated water

a network of air tubes that branch throughout the body

in flies, their muscle systems quickly pump air through the tubes when flying

sacs with exchange surfaces on the inside. partnered with the circulatory system to bring O2 all over the body

trachea brings air to the bronchi and then bronchioles, which branch out and end in alveoli

the alveoli have a moist thin exchange surface

bird breathing

mammal breathing

amphibian breathing

air exhaled in each breath is tidal volume. it averages 500 mL in humans

breath is usually regulated involuntarily by the medulla oblongata based on CO2 levels

negative pressure, diaphram pulls open sacs and they are forced full of air

gulps down air with positive pressure, elastic recoil of lungs pushes air back out

two air sacs on either side of lungs. in one breath the bottom one fills and during exhalation is pushed into lungs, in another breath it fills the top sac, then is exhaled out the body

cohesion tension sticks together the layers of lung and diaphragm

maximum tidal volume is vital capacity

the air remaining in the lungs is residual capacity

osmolarity

osmoregulatory challenges and mechanisms

marine

freshwater

urea

uric acid

ammonia

excretory processes

excretory systems

metanphridia

malpighian tubules

protonpchridia

kidneys

from blood filtrate to urine

osmosis

When there is a membrane permeable to water but not salt (or some other solute), then water will naturally cross to the side with more salt until the salinity is even on both sides

osmolarity -the number of moles of salt per liter of solution

average human osmolarity is about 300 milliosmoles per liter

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hyperosmotic -solution with a higher concentration of solutes

hypoosmotic -solution with a lower concentration of solutes

isoosmotic -two solutions have the same molarity

osmoconformer -isosmotic with surroundings (only marine animals)

osmoregulator -control internal osmolarity different from the environment

must get rid of water when in a hypoosmotic environment like freshwater, and gain more water when in hyperosmotic environment like seawater

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euryhaline -can tolerate significant osmotic changes, for example, barnicles, muscles, striped bass and salmon

stenohaline -can't tolerate much changes in osmolarity of environment

mostly osmoconformers, but regulate specific solutes

like the Atantic lobster and their Mg concentration

face the problem of gaining too much water because their insides are hypertonic to fresh water

drink very little and produce lots of dilute urine

some osmoregulate, such as bony fish and sharks

the cod drinks lots of seawater and filters out salt in kidney

TMAO protects proteins from denaturing because of urea in sharks

it also helps them be hyperosmotic to the ocean

face the problem of losing all their water to osmosis with the sea

animals that spend time in both environments have to be able to change adaptations between environments

ascending limb of loop of henle

distal tubule

descending limb of loop of henle

collecting duct

proximal tubule

very toxic, needs to be diluted with lots of water

mostly aquatic animals, invertebrates diffuse it through their whole skin

ammonia combined with CO2 in liver. costs energy to make, but low toxicity

mostly land animals

amphibians can switch between the two

synthesized from ammonia using ATP

insects, snails, reptiles and birds

reabsorption -useful molecules from the filtrate are recovered into body fluid

filtrate -the result of filtration

excretion -filtrate is removed from the body as urine

filtration -a body fluid such as blood or hemolymph is filtered by a selectively permeable membrane

cap cells filter and send out into external environment

flatworms

a pair in each segment and a hole for each one, dilute urine makes up for net intake of water

earthworms

tubes collect waste and add it to feces

insects

complicated blood filters filled with nephron structures for reclaiming from filtrate, vertebrates and chordates

vertebrates and chordates

glomerulus

a network of capillaries within the bowman's capsule. it is a dead end which blood is pushed through. the membrane is semipermeable

salts, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, nitrogenous wastes, and other small molecules are pushed out

nutrients are passively transported out

H+ is activly transported in, and NH3 is used to trap it as ammonia

K+ is passively transported out

water follows by diffusion

HCO3- is passively transported out

Na+ is actively transported out of the filtrate and into the interstitial fluid. Cl- follows passively

permeable to water but not salt

water is passively transported out along its whole length

permeable to salt but not water

salt diffuses out passively during the thin segment because of it's high concentration

in the thick limb salt is actively transported

more salt, water and HCO3- are transported out, K+ and H+ are transported in. levels vary as part of blood regulation

hormones control the permeability to for osmotic regulation