chapter 42 and 44
42
44
blood pressure
lymph circulation
cardiovascular system branches into smaller and smaller arteries that connect to veins that get bigger and bigger
blood
types of hearts
respiratory organs
circulatory systems
breathing
which organisms produce ammonia, urea, or uric acid wastes
major excretory organs and their functions
freshwater v marine animals
parts of nephrons and functions
osmosis
circulatory needs -all cells need access to nutrients and oxygen. single celled organisms, or those only a few cells wide can get these directly from the environment, but for larger animals, something more complicated is needed
circulatory systems have three parts
circulating fluid that goes all throughout the body to allow cells do to gas exchange,
a heart to pump the fluid
circulatory system organization
single
double
kinds of circulatory systems
closed
open
interconnecting vessels to hold it
a heart pumps hemolymph throughout body cavity, arthropods and some mollusks
blood is separate from interstitial fluid and is confined to branching blood vessels, helps regulate blood supply to various organs
blood travels through one loop of circulation, from heart to gills, to body and back to the heart.
blood travels in two loops, one from heart to lungs and back, and another from heart throughout body and back
this kind of circulation is used by fish
this kind is used by mammals
amphibians
mammal
fish
one atrium and one ventricle, since they have single circulation
two atrium and two ventricles, right atrium sucks blood from body, right ventricle sends it to lungs. left atrium sucks blood from lungs, left ventricle sends blood to body
much like that of a mammal, but with the left and right ventricle not completely separated. this way they can cut off flow to the lungs when swimming and breath through their skin
arteries -take blood from heart to organs
arterioles -take blood within organs to capillaries
capillaries -thin vessels with microscopic porous walls
capillary beds -networks of capillaries that infiltrate tissues. this is where diffusion and substance exchange takes place
venules -converge into veins
veins -take blood back to heart
blood moves from high pressure to low pressure, this is how the heart pumps it
regulation of blood pressure
blood pressure and gravity
blood pressure during cardiac cycle
blood pressure is highest during systole, when the heart pushes blood through the body, this stretches out all the arteries, causing pulse that you can feel in your wrist and neck
vasoconstriction and vasodilation move blood through arteries
it takes significant blood pressure to pump blood across the whole body when standing up
blood pressure is very high for animals with long necks
muscles in the walls of veins help fight gravity while blood travels from the feet to the heart
lots of fluid leaks from blood vessels every day. it is returned by the lymphatic system
this fluid, called lymph, goes through the lymphatic system and drains into large veins at the base of the neck
the lymphatic system also transfers lipids from the small intestine to the blood
the lymphatic system circulates using contraction of vessels, valves, and movement of skelatal muscles
during infection lymph nodes swell and produce white blood cells
a parasite can lodge itself in the lymph vessels and block flow, causing elephantiasis
parts
eurythrocytes
leukocytes
plasma
platelets
normal human blood pressure is about 120 millimeters of mercury
proteins and dissolved salts.
effects osmotic balance and interstitial fluids
substances in transit such metabolic waste, respiratory gases and hormones
red blood cells, most numerous blood cells. they are shaped like flat disks and are filled with hemoglobin for transporting O2, their main function. they have no nucleus.
fight infections, some are phagocytic. can leave blood vessels
cytoplasmic fragments from bone marrow, structural and for bone clotting
gills
tracheal systems
respiratory surfaces
lungs
mammal respiratory systems
the surface on an animal where O2 is exchanged for CO2. the exchange membranes must be in contact with an aqueous solution
there also has to be a large surface area. when an organism's skin is not sufficient, it has an organ with lots of infolded membranes like lungs, gills or tracheae
outfoldings of the body suspended in water. only used by aquatic animals
they use countercurrent exchange, where blood with more oxygen is put into contact with less oxygenated water and blood with less oxygen is put into contact with more oxygenated water
a network of air tubes that branch throughout the body
in flies, their muscle systems quickly pump air through the tubes when flying
sacs with exchange surfaces on the inside. partnered with the circulatory system to bring O2 all over the body
trachea brings air to the bronchi and then bronchioles, which branch out and end in alveoli
the alveoli have a moist thin exchange surface
bird breathing
mammal breathing
amphibian breathing
air exhaled in each breath is tidal volume. it averages 500 mL in humans
breath is usually regulated involuntarily by the medulla oblongata based on CO2 levels
negative pressure, diaphram pulls open sacs and they are forced full of air
gulps down air with positive pressure, elastic recoil of lungs pushes air back out
two air sacs on either side of lungs. in one breath the bottom one fills and during exhalation is pushed into lungs, in another breath it fills the top sac, then is exhaled out the body
cohesion tension sticks together the layers of lung and diaphragm
maximum tidal volume is vital capacity
the air remaining in the lungs is residual capacity
osmolarity
osmoregulatory challenges and mechanisms
marine
freshwater
urea
uric acid
ammonia
excretory processes
excretory systems
metanphridia
malpighian tubules
protonpchridia
kidneys
from blood filtrate to urine
osmosis
When there is a membrane permeable to water but not salt (or some other solute), then water will naturally cross to the side with more salt until the salinity is even on both sides
osmolarity -the number of moles of salt per liter of solution
average human osmolarity is about 300 milliosmoles per liter
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hyperosmotic -solution with a higher concentration of solutes
hypoosmotic -solution with a lower concentration of solutes
isoosmotic -two solutions have the same molarity
osmoconformer -isosmotic with surroundings (only marine animals)
osmoregulator -control internal osmolarity different from the environment
must get rid of water when in a hypoosmotic environment like freshwater, and gain more water when in hyperosmotic environment like seawater
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euryhaline -can tolerate significant osmotic changes, for example, barnicles, muscles, striped bass and salmon
stenohaline -can't tolerate much changes in osmolarity of environment
mostly osmoconformers, but regulate specific solutes
like the Atantic lobster and their Mg concentration
face the problem of gaining too much water because their insides are hypertonic to fresh water
drink very little and produce lots of dilute urine
some osmoregulate, such as bony fish and sharks
the cod drinks lots of seawater and filters out salt in kidney
TMAO protects proteins from denaturing because of urea in sharks
it also helps them be hyperosmotic to the ocean
face the problem of losing all their water to osmosis with the sea
animals that spend time in both environments have to be able to change adaptations between environments
ascending limb of loop of henle
distal tubule
descending limb of loop of henle
collecting duct
proximal tubule
very toxic, needs to be diluted with lots of water
mostly aquatic animals, invertebrates diffuse it through their whole skin
ammonia combined with CO2 in liver. costs energy to make, but low toxicity
mostly land animals
amphibians can switch between the two
synthesized from ammonia using ATP
insects, snails, reptiles and birds
reabsorption -useful molecules from the filtrate are recovered into body fluid
filtrate -the result of filtration
excretion -filtrate is removed from the body as urine
filtration -a body fluid such as blood or hemolymph is filtered by a selectively permeable membrane
cap cells filter and send out into external environment
flatworms
a pair in each segment and a hole for each one, dilute urine makes up for net intake of water
earthworms
tubes collect waste and add it to feces
insects
complicated blood filters filled with nephron structures for reclaiming from filtrate, vertebrates and chordates
vertebrates and chordates
glomerulus
a network of capillaries within the bowman's capsule. it is a dead end which blood is pushed through. the membrane is semipermeable
salts, glucose, amino acids, vitamins, nitrogenous wastes, and other small molecules are pushed out
nutrients are passively transported out
H+ is activly transported in, and NH3 is used to trap it as ammonia
K+ is passively transported out
water follows by diffusion
HCO3- is passively transported out
Na+ is actively transported out of the filtrate and into the interstitial fluid. Cl- follows passively
permeable to water but not salt
water is passively transported out along its whole length
permeable to salt but not water
salt diffuses out passively during the thin segment because of it's high concentration
in the thick limb salt is actively transported
more salt, water and HCO3- are transported out, K+ and H+ are transported in. levels vary as part of blood regulation
hormones control the permeability to for osmotic regulation