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22 year old male comes into the hospital with testicular shrinkage. He…

- - - - a medical condition in which the testes do not produce enough testosterone
    - - such as delayed puberty
    - - like some cancers and HIV infection
    - - enhances performance
  - - - the pituitary gland cannot release luteinizing hormone
        
        resulting in the testes not being able to secrete testosterone
    - - down regulations
- - - - which simulates the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormone
    - - regulates mammary gland growth and breast milk production in females; may increase secretion of testosterone in males
    - - controls development of both oocytes and ovarian follicle (spherical structure that houses an oocyte) within ovaries; controls development of sperm within testes
    - - induces ovulation of secondary oocytes from the ovarian follicle; controls testosterone synthesis within testes
    - - stimulates adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids (e.g., cortisol)
    - - release of insulin-like growth factors (IFGs) from liver; GH and IGFs function syngeristically to induce growth
  - - - which promotes drowsiness and plays a role in sexual maturation
  - - - increase metabolic rate of cells; increase heat production (calorigenie effect)
  - - - which increases blood calcium levels
  - - - mineralocorticoids (aldosterone)
        
        regulates blood Na+ and K+ levels by decreasing the Na+ and increasing the K+ excerted in urine
      - glucocorticoids (cortisol)
        
        participates in the stress response; increases nutrients (e.g., glucose) that are available in the blood
      - gonadocorticoids (dehydroepiandrosterone)
        
        stimulates maturation and functioning of the reproductive system
    - - epinephrine (EPI) and norepinephrine (NE)
        
        prolong effects of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system
- - - - once entered the cell, the hormone binds to intracellular receptors
        
        receptors located in the cytosol or nucleus
        
        they form a hormone-receptor complex
        
        then, the hormone-receptor complex binds to a particular DNA sequence called hormone response elements
        
        resulting in the subsequent transcription and translation of specific proteins
  - - - oxytocin
        
        released from the pituitary gland and acts on the smooth muscle of the uterus
      - glucagon
        
        released from the pancreas and acts on the liver
    - - thus need to bind to a plasma membrane receptor
        
        this binding initiates a series called signal transduction pathway
        
        the hormone is the first messenger and the binding of the hormone to the receptor forms a secondary messenger
        
        both pathways function through an internal plasma membrane protein complex called a G protein
        
        changes from inactive form to active form upon the binding of hormone
        
        activated G protein generally activates adenylate cyclase or phospholipase C
        
        adenylate cyclase can increase the formation of cAMP from ATP when activated
        
        which activates protien kinase that phosphorylate other molecules
        
        phospholipase C can split PIP2 when activated
        
        resulting in the formation of two secondary messenger molecules: diacylglycerol and inositol triphosphate
        
        2 more items...
- - - - can add to mental side effects
  - - - an infection that can cause inflammation of the inner lining of the heart
        
        can be fatal
- - - - which can sometimes lead to suicide attempts
- - - - this way, the variable is maintained within a normal level
        
        also known as its set point
        
        the variable dose not stay constant over time but instead fluctuates
        
        fluctuation occurs around its set point
        
        if the stimulus increases, the homeostatic system is activated to decrease the stimulus until it returns to its set point
        
        in contrast, if the stimulus decreased, it would cause an increase in the stimulus until it returns to its normal set point
  - - - following a climatic event, the body again returns to homeostasis
        
        because their end result is to increase the activity, positive feedback mechanisms occur much less than negative feedback mechanisms