Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
basis knowledge
Discourse on the Origin of Inequality(1755)
men in the state of nature
in the state of nature in 3 ways
superior bodily skills and endurance
desires and tastes which were few and easily satisfied
superior senses of smell, sight and hearing
moral condition
Men are naturally good
society made bad
Men, unlike animals, have a free will
men operate through choice
invent a language in order to preserve their ideas and acts
'speech' 'is the first social institution'
naturally compassionate
Why does conflict not arise in 2 reasons
The simplicity of men's taste and desires
conflict is reduced
not affected by pride or vanity but has ‘self-love’
own preservation
conflict is limited for man in the state of nature but not in civil society
Formation of Civil Society
4 main reasons
Men came together in civil society due to the growth in men's inventiveness in overcoming difficulties
establishment of the family
produces emotion and feeling
development of language and leads to increased communication
conform to what other people want
deny their real selves
private property
Economic innovations
the growth of civilization corrupted natural goodness and increased inequality between men
The Social Contract (1762)
social contract theory
(transcendence of our former selves)
form an 'association' they must have a principle of unity
Otherwise the group is only an 'aggregation'
Legitimacy is only possible if sovereignty is retained by the citizens
be identical with themselves
The establishment of a political community is not just an agreement but also has to change the citizens' personalities
individual places his person and all his powers under the supreme direction of the general will
Discourse, man can be corrupted by this development
2 main points of the social contract
changes people's nature
creates a collective agency, the sovereign
continually reaffirmed
general will
2 main assumptions behind the general will
There is an objective common good distinct from the particular interests or wishes of the individuals composing society
It assumes that in any given situation there is always some policy or policies which will serve that common good
if the general will against the individual will
he individual has undergone a psychological transformation on entering society
freedom and legitimacy are more easily achieved in small states
the way we identify what the general will could be
general will is what identifies and sustains the existence of any collective body
if the majority is uninformed, they may not promote the general will
does not mean that these decisions can be overridden
The general will has to 'come from all and apply to all'
The general will is not merely an aggregate of selfish desires
If an individual disagrees with what he regarded as the general will that the individual is wrong and he should adopt the new general will
obey his higher public will than his lower selfish
how can we work out the political institutions and political culture that are capable of achieving the general will
we should guard against the emergence of parties or general interest groups
totalitarian destroy liberty
people must think their own thoughts and not be swayed by others
individuals must be present and vote in person
rejects political representation
direct democracy
Direct, Participatory Democracy
Rousseau makes a clear distinction between the sovereign, which embodies the general will, and government, which is merely the institution through which the sovereign people expresses its will
the government could possess a general will of its own
the judges, or members of government, could identify more with the will of government rather than the general will of society
political system constantly needs to be reaffirmed in order to be legitimate
political power power is not equally spread amongst the citizens
people could oversee the enforcement of law and to even overturn the government's interpretation of the law
people also control the government's revenues
tax
people have the rights of assembly outside of their legislative meetings
Freedom
2 ways in which our freedom can be denied
If we will something which we cannot attain
Our wills themselves might not be free
2 ways to deal with this problem of unfreedom
Reorganise the world so the will can always realise its object
Discipline the will so that it never can will what it cannot achieve
freedom
man is born free but everywhere he is in chains
Man is free in civil society if he obeys his own law
forced to be free'. 2 criticisms
be justifying pressure by the sovereign on individuals
someone can be 'forced' to do something yet be 'free' because this seems opposing
Ideal of Equality and Private Property
through education
equality does not mean that there is no hierarchy in society
'Liberty, Equality and Fraternity'
lived during the Enlightenment
stressing the importance of reason
too much reason was a bad thing and that there were times when the heart should rule the head
novel Émile (1762)
stressed the importance of personal ideals against the powers of the state and the pressures of society