Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

basis knowledge

Discourse on the Origin of Inequality(1755)

men in the state of nature

in the state of nature in 3 ways

superior bodily skills and endurance

desires and tastes which were few and easily satisfied

superior senses of smell, sight and hearing

moral condition

Men are naturally good

society made bad

Men, unlike animals, have a free will

men operate through choice

invent a language in order to preserve their ideas and acts

'speech' 'is the first social institution'

naturally compassionate

Why does conflict not arise in 2 reasons

The simplicity of men's taste and desires

conflict is reduced

not affected by pride or vanity but has ‘self-love’

own preservation

conflict is limited for man in the state of nature but not in civil society

Formation of Civil Society

4 main reasons

Men came together in civil society due to the growth in men's inventiveness in overcoming difficulties

establishment of the family

produces emotion and feeling

development of language and leads to increased communication

conform to what other people want

deny their real selves

private property

Economic innovations

the growth of civilization corrupted natural goodness and increased inequality between men

The Social Contract (1762)

social contract theory
(transcendence of our former selves)

form an 'association' they must have a principle of unity

Otherwise the group is only an 'aggregation'

Legitimacy is only possible if sovereignty is retained by the citizens

be identical with themselves

The establishment of a political community is not just an agreement but also has to change the citizens' personalities

individual places his person and all his powers under the supreme direction of the general will

Discourse, man can be corrupted by this development

2 main points of the social contract

changes people's nature

creates a collective agency, the sovereign

continually reaffirmed

general will

2 main assumptions behind the general will

There is an objective common good distinct from the particular interests or wishes of the individuals composing society

It assumes that in any given situation there is always some policy or policies which will serve that common good

if the general will against the individual will

he individual has undergone a psychological transformation on entering society

freedom and legitimacy are more easily achieved in small states

the way we identify what the general will could be

general will is what identifies and sustains the existence of any collective body

if the majority is uninformed, they may not promote the general will

does not mean that these decisions can be overridden

The general will has to 'come from all and apply to all'

The general will is not merely an aggregate of selfish desires

If an individual disagrees with what he regarded as the general will that the individual is wrong and he should adopt the new general will

obey his higher public will than his lower selfish

how can we work out the political institutions and political culture that are capable of achieving the general will

we should guard against the emergence of parties or general interest groups

totalitarian destroy liberty

people must think their own thoughts and not be swayed by others

individuals must be present and vote in person

rejects political representation

direct democracy

Direct, Participatory Democracy

Rousseau makes a clear distinction between the sovereign, which embodies the general will, and government, which is merely the institution through which the sovereign people expresses its will

the government could possess a general will of its own

the judges, or members of government, could identify more with the will of government rather than the general will of society

political system constantly needs to be reaffirmed in order to be legitimate

political power power is not equally spread amongst the citizens

people could oversee the enforcement of law and to even overturn the government's interpretation of the law

people also control the government's revenues

tax

people have the rights of assembly outside of their legislative meetings

Freedom

2 ways in which our freedom can be denied

If we will something which we cannot attain

Our wills themselves might not be free

2 ways to deal with this problem of unfreedom

Reorganise the world so the will can always realise its object

Discipline the will so that it never can will what it cannot achieve

freedom

man is born free but everywhere he is in chains

Man is free in civil society if he obeys his own law

forced to be free'. 2 criticisms

be justifying pressure by the sovereign on individuals

someone can be 'forced' to do something yet be 'free' because this seems opposing

Ideal of Equality and Private Property

through education

equality does not mean that there is no hierarchy in society

'Liberty, Equality and Fraternity'

lived during the Enlightenment

stressing the importance of reason

too much reason was a bad thing and that there were times when the heart should rule the head

novel Émile (1762)

stressed the importance of personal ideals against the powers of the state and the pressures of society