communication and culture
Understanding Cultures And Cocultures
one early survey of scholarly literature revealed 500 definitions, phrasings, and uses of the concept. for our purposes here is a clear and comprehensive definition of culture: " the language, values, beliefs, traditions, and customs people share and learn."
when you think of cultures, you may think of different nationalities. but within a society, differences also exist. social scientists use the term coculture to describe the perception of membership in a group that is part of an encompassing culture. the sons and daughters of immigrants. for example, might be immersed in mainstream American culture while still identifying with the customs of their parent's homeland. members of cocultures often develop unique patterns of communication. the term that describes the interaction among members of different cocultures is Intergroup Communication.
cocultures in today's society include, for example, age, race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, physical disability, language, religion, activity
Intercultural and intergroup communication: A matter of Salience social scientists use the term salience to describe how much weight we attach to cultural characteristics. consider a few examples in which culture has little or no salience: a group of preschool children is playing together in a park. these 3-year-old's don't recognize that their parents may come from different countries or events that they don't speak the same language. at this point, we wouldn't say that intercultural or intergroup communication is taking place. only when cultural factors (e.g., diet, sharing, or parental discipline) become salient do the children begin to think of another as different.
the above example shows that in order to view ourselves as a member of a culture or coculture. there has to be some distinctions between "us" and "them" social scientists use the label in-groups to describe groups with which we identify and are emotionally connected. and out-groups to label those we view as different and with whom we have no sense of affiliation.
Cultural Differences Are Generalizations.
it is important not to overstate the influence of culture and communication. there are sometimes grater differences within cultures than between them. consider the matter of formality as an example. by most measures, U.S, cultures, broadly, is far more casual than many others. furthermore, within every culture, members display a wide range of communication styles. for instance, although most Asian cultures tend to be collectivistic, many members of those cultures identify themselves as individualists. it is important to remember that cultural differences are generalizations- broad patterns that do not apply to every member group.
Cultural values and Norms Shape Communication some cultural influences on communication are obvious. you don't have to be a researcher to appreciate that different languages and customs can make communication between groups interesting and challenging
individualism and collectivism some cultures value the individual more than the group. whereas others place greater emphasis on the group members of individualistic cultures view their primary responsibility as helping themselves. whereas communicators in collectivistic cultures feel loyalties and obligations to one's extended family. community, or even the organization one works for
high and low cultural context social scientists have identified two distinct ways that members of various cultures deliver messages. in Low context, members use language primarily to express thoughts, feelings, and ideas are directly as possible. by contrast, members of high-context cultures rely heavily on subtle, often non verbal cues to maintain social harmony. mainstream culture in the united states, Canada, northern Europe, and Israel falls toward the low-context end of the scale. longtime residents generally value straight talk and grow impatient with people who beat around the bush. by contrast most Asian and middle eastern cultures fit the high context pattern
Uncertainty Avoidance. uncertainty may be universal. but cultures have different ways of coping with an unpredictable future. the term Uncertainty avoidance is used to reflect the degree to which members of a culture feel threatened by ambiguous situations and how much they try to avoid them a culture's degree of uncertainty avoidance is reflected in the way its members communicate. in countries that avoid uncertainty out of the ordinary people and ideas are considered dangerous and intolerance is high. people in these cultures are especially concerned with security, so they have a strong need for clearly defined rules and regulations
power distancerefers to the extent of the gap between social groups who posses resources and influence and those who don't. culture's with low power distance believe in minimizing the difference between various social classes. rich and poor, educated and uneducated groups may still exist, but there is a good as another regardless of his or her station in life.
Beliefs About Talk and Silence. beliefs about the very value of talk as desirable and use it for social purposes as well as to perform tasks. silence can feel embarrassing and awkward in these cultures. it is likely to be interpreted as lack of interest, unwillingness to communicate, hostility, anxiety, shyness, or sign of interpersonal incompatibility. on the other hand Asian tend to perceive talk quite differently. for thousands of years, people in Asian cultures have favored silence over "excessive" verbal expression of thoughts and feelings.
competitive and cooperative cultures. cultures are a bit like people in that they fall somewhere on a spectrum between competitive and cooperative the cultures of some countries, such as Taiwan, place relatively equal value on competition and cooperation. in other countries such as Japan, Italy, Nigeria, and Great Britain, qualities such as competitiveness, independence and assertiveness are highly valued. gender roles are less differentiated in more cooperative cultures which emphasize equality, relationships, cooperation, and consensus-building
cocultures and communication. much of how we view ourselves and how we relate to others grow from our cultural and cocultural identity-the groups with which we identify. where do you come from? what's your ethnicity? your religion? your sexual orientation? your age?
race and ethnicity. race is a construct originally created to explain differences between people whose ancestors originated in different regions of the world, Africa, Asia, Europe and so on. ethnicity is another social construct, ethnicity refers to the degree to which a person identifies with a particular group usually on the basis of nationality, culture, religion, or some other perspective this goes beyond physical indicators, for example, a person may have physical characteristics that appear Asian but they may identify more strongly as a Mormon or a member of the working class
it is simplistic to think of people as members of a single category. this is true for everyone but consider Barack Obama as an example. he is generally recognized as the first African American president of the United states, despite the fact that his mother was white. Obama experienced a variety of cultural influences while living in Indonesia. Hawaii, California, New York, Chicago, and Washington, DC. social scientists use the term Intersectionality to describe the complex interplay of people's multiple identities. the theory proposes that people are not simply the sum total of the different identities.
**regional differences where you come from can shape feelings of belonging and how others regard you. an accent is a case in point. speakers of standard ("newscaster") English are typically viewed as more competent and self-confident than others, and people tend to take what they say more seriously.in one experiment researchers asked human resources professionals to rate intelligence, initiative, and personality of job applicants after listening to a brief recording of their voices the speakers with recognizable regional accents- from the southern united states or new jersey, for example, were tagged for lower-level jobs, whereas those with less pronounced speech styles were recommended for higher-level jobs that t involved more public contact.
accents are not the only indicator of regional differences. sociolinguist Deborah Tannen recorded the conversation at a thanks giving day dinner that included two Christians who grew up in California three Jewish people from new York and a British women. Tannen found that the Jewish new Yorkers spoke with what she called a "high involvement" style that worked well with their companies from the same background but was regarded differently by the English women and the Californians
religion in some cultures religion is the defining factor in shaping in and out-groups. as fears of terrorism have grown peace-loving Muslims living in the wet have often been singled out and vilified. Yasmin Hussein, who works at the Arab American Institute, reflects on the prejudice and cruelty: many Muslims and individuals of other faiths who were thought to be Muslim have been there attacked physically and verbally. young children have been bullied at schools, others told to go back home and social media has become at times (a lot of the time) an ugly place to be on" in an effort to dispel unrealistic stereotypes, tens of thousands of Muslims have joined the #NOTINMYNAME social media movement in which they denounce terrorist groups such as ISIS and condemn violence in the name of the religion
physical ability/Disability whereas identities related to ethnicity or nationality may require years of immersion, disability is "a club anyone can join, anytime. it is very easy. have a stroke and be paralyzed... be in a car wreck and never walk again" although able- bodied people might view disability as an unfortunate condition many people with disabilities find that belonging to a community of similar people can be rewarding. deaf culture is a good example. the shared experiences of deafness can create strong bonds. most notably distinct languages build a shared worldview and solidarity. there are deaf schools, deaf competitions, deaf performing arts and other organizations that bring deaf people.
age /generation imagine how odd it would seem to hear an 8-year-old or a senior citizen talking, dressing, or otherwise acting like a 20 something. we tend to think of getting older as a purely biological process. but age-related communication reflects the culture at least as much as biology. in many ways we learn how to dress, talk ,say and what not to say_ in the same way we learn how to play other roles in our lives, such as student or employee. relationships between younger and older people are shaped by cultural assumptions that change over time. today western countries mostly honor youth, and attitudes about aging are more negative than positive. on balance people over age 40 are still twice as likely as younger once to be depicted in the media as an attractive, bored and in declining health and people over 60 are still underrepresented in the media. despite negative stereotypes the data on personal satisfaction present in a different story. studies show that overall, people in their 60s are just as happy as people in their 20
socioeconomic staus social class have a miajr impact on how people communicate. people in the united states typically identify themselves as belonging to the working class, middle class, or upper class and feel a sense of solidarity with peole who tend to feel that they are united both by hardship and by their commitment to hard, physical work.. the effects of social class continue into the workplace, where skills such as assertiveness and persuasiveness are carrier enhancers. peole who come from working class families and attain middle or upper class carriers face special challenges. new speech and language clothing and nonverbal patterns often are necessaryto gain acceptance.
developing intercultural communication competenceto great degree interacting successfully with strangers calls for the same ingredients of general communicative competence outlined in chapter 1. it is important to have a wide range of behaviors and to be skillful at choosing and performing the most appropriate ones in a given situation. a genuine concern for others plays an important role. cognitive complexity and the ability to emphasize also help. finally self monitoring is important is important because it is often necessary to make midcourse corrections in your approach when dealing with strangers
increased contact more than a half-century of research confirms that under the right circumstances. spending time with people from different backgrounds leads to a host of positive outcomes: reduced prejudice, greater productivity, and better relationships. the link between exposure and positive attitudes called the contact hypothesis has been demonstrated in a wide range of contexts.
*Tolerance for ambiguity. without tolerance for ambiguity, the mass of often confusing and some times downright incomprehensible messages that impact intercultural interactions would be impossible to manage. some people seem to come equipped with this sort of tolerance, whereas others have to cultivate it. one way or the other, that ability to live with uncertainty is an essential ingredient of intercultural communication competence.
open-mindedness being comfortable with ambiguity is important but without an open-minded attitude, a communicator will have trouble interacting competently with people from different backgrounds. to understand open-mindedness it is helpful to consider three traits that are incompatible with it. ethnocentrism is an attitude that one's own culture is superior to others. an ethnocentric person thinks either privately or openly that anyone who does not belong to his/her in-group is somehow strange, wrong, or even inferior. ethnocentrism leads to an attitude of prejudice an unfairly biased and intolerant attitude toward others who belong to an outgroup. another barrier to diversity occurs in the form of hegemony. in the dominance of one culture over another. a common example of this is the impact of Hollywood around the world. people who are consistently exposed to American images and cultural ideas can begin to regard them as desirable
knowledge and skill attitude alone isn't enough to guarantee success in intercultural encounters. communicators need enough knowledge of other cultures to have a clear sense of which approaches are appropriate. the rules and customs that work with one group might be quite different from those that succeed with another. the ability to shift gears and adapt one's style to the norms of another culture or coculture is an essential ingredient of communication competence. one school of thought holds that uncertainty can motivate relationship development- to a point. for example, you may be interested in a newcomer to your class because he is from another country. however, if attempting a conversation with him heightens your sense of uncertainty and discomfort, you may abandon the idea of making friends. the basic premise of anxiety uncertainty management theory is that if uncertainty and anxiety are too low or too high we are likely to avoid communicating
patience and perseverance becoming comfortable and competent in a new culture or coculture may be ultimately rewarding, but the process isn't easy. communication theorist young Yum Kim has studied cultural adaption extensively. she says it's natural to feel a sense of push and pull between familiar and the novel. Kim encourages sojourners to regard stress as a good sign. it may have the potential to adapt and grow. with patience, the sense of crisis begins to wane, and once again, there's energy and ethuanism to learn more. communication can be a challenge while you are learning how to operate in new cultures, but it can also be a solution. the transition from culture shock to adaption and growth is usually successful but isn't smooth.
I UNDERSTOOD EVERYTHING. THE PART THAT SURPRISED ME IS THAT I USE TO THINK THAT CULTURES AND COCULTURES HAVE THE SAME MEANING. BUT NOW I KNOW THAT THEY HAVE DIFFERENT MEANINGS. CULTURE IS THE LANGUAGE, VALUE, BELIEFS, TRADITIONS, AND CUSTOMS PEOPLE SHARE AND LEARN BUT COCULTURE IS THE PERCEPTION OF MEMBERSHIP IN A GROUP THAT IS PART OF AN ENCOMPASSING CULTURE. SO DIFFERENT. IT INTERESTED ME SO MUCH THAT I HAD TO LOOK FOR EXAMPLES TO GET IT MORE