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KQ5: US containing Communism (Cuban Missile Crisis (How was it resolved…
KQ5: US containing Communism
The Korean War
June 1950 – Why did NK invade SK?
Reunite Korea
Unpopular regime in the South – Syngman Rhee was corrupt
Many in the South were in favour of unification
They could win
Had the support of the Soviet Union and China
NK armed forces were stronger than SK's
1950: Syngman Rhee threatened North Korea – NK retaliated
Why did America get involved?
Policy of containment
Domino theory: if some countries fell to Communism, America soon would
China had already fallen
=> East was under threat
Part of the Cold War
Felt tested by the Soviet union
An opportunity to fight Communism without attacking Russia
Committed to SK
Had been closely involved in its establishment
Was a challenge to the US's position
Had to prevent them turning Communist
How far was is a success for containment?
For:
Showed the US could and would contain Communism
–> had enough armed forces and will
–> had contributed 90% of air forces, 85% of naval forces
–> deterred expansionist aims of China and Russia
Showed the significance of the United Nations and the US's position within it
–> international cooperation worked
Victory for Truman – beat MacArthur
–> containment over rollback
Situation at the end was the same as before
–> Communism had been contained
Against:
America tried rollback and failed
–> showed weakness by settling for containment
Massive cost of human lives – 4Mn Koreans died
Showed divisions among American leaders
–> Truman and MacArthur
Had to use the UN
–> shows weakness
Accused of being expansionist and missing an opportunity to destroy communism in China
Sequence of events:
NK captures Seoul
US troops driven back to Pusan
Invasion at Inchon
Seoul taken by the UN
UN captures Pyongyang
UN pushes up to the Yalu River
Chinese troops push US troops to Hungnam and Wonsan
1 more item...
Successes for NK:
June 25th 1950: capture of Seoul
July 5th: drive to Pusan
Nov 7 - Dec 9: drive to Hungnam and Wonsan
Jan 4th 1951: recapture of Seoul
Successes for US:
Sep 15th 1950: invasion at Inchon
Sep 26th: recapture of Seoul
Oct 19th: capture of Pyongyang
Oct 25th: drive to Yalu River
March 18th 1951: recapture of Seoul
–> advancement north of 38th Parallel
Key dates:
NK attack: June 25th 1950
Truce talks begin: July 10th 1951
Armistice agreement: July 27th 1953
The Vietnam War
Origins
Was ruled by France since the 19th century
Taken over by the Japanese during WWII
After war: Viet Minh in control of North Vietnam, declared independence, aimed to take whole country
=> war with France
1949: China gave assistance to the Viet Minh
USA gave France $500Mn a year 1950-54
France set up government in South Vietnam – guerrilla tactics make fighting difficult
Dien Bien Phu
French paratroopers defeated
–> 3000 in battle, 8000 in captivity
Massive attack by the Viet Minh
Geneva Agreement – May 1945
Vietnam divided temporarily along 17th parallel
North controlled by Ho Chi Minh
South controlled by Ngo Dinh Diem
Vietminh withdrew from South, French pulled out of North
Elections for whole of Vietnam fixed for July 1956
US Involvement
Why did they get involved?
Domino theory – if South Vietnam was to fall, neighbouring countries eg. Malaya, Burma, Thailand, maybe India would fall
America had to show they would act to stop Communism – had to appear strong to USSR
North Vietnam would unite the whole of Vietnam under Communist rule – France were already weak
How were they involved?
1955 – Set up Republic of South Vietnam
–> supplied Diem with $1.6Bn
–> after he was overthrown other corrupt regimes continued to receive American aid
1962 – sending military advisers to fight Viet Cong
1964 – 23,000 troops
Gulf of Tonkin
Tactics
Viet Cong:
Guerrilla tactics – used by Mao
retreat when the enemy attacks
raid when the enemy camps
attack when the enemy tires
pursue when the enemy retreats
wear down morale
Problems faced by US forces
difficult to distinguish Viet Cong from local peasants
difficult to catch when they disappeared into jungle
constant fear of ambushes and booby traps
Were ruthless – campaign of terror against South Vietnamese government – 27,000 civilians killed 1966-71
Were determined and persistent – would not give in despite losing a million men
USA:
Bombing
Operation Rolling Thunder continued until 1972
USA dropped more bombs on Vietnam than in WWII
Chemical weapons
Agent Orange – toxic weedkiller to destroy jungle
Napalm
Search and destroy
heavily defended bases in South Vietnam from which search-and-destroy helicopter raids were launched
Resulted in destruction of innocent villages and high civilian casualties
=> many South Vietnamese peasants supported Viet Cong
Late stages:
Tet Offensive 1968 + significance
Major communist offensive on over 100 cities and other targets including Saigon – failed
VC lost 10,000 fighters, severely weakened
Hope the S Vietnamese people would rise up and join them – they didn't
Raised difficult questions in USA – why had US forces been taken by surprise, was it worth the great loss of life in retaking the towns
Public opinion on Vietnam War
Already turning against the war before 1968 – increased after the Tet Offensive
Many disturbed by TV, radio and newspaper reports – including pictures of torture and executions and children being burned by napalm
Anti-war protests all across USA
Thousands dodged the draft and many burned draft cards
Hundreds of demonstrations in universities – National Guard killed four students at Kent State University in Ohio
My Lai Massacre and impact
Massacre of 300-400 innocent civilians by US troops in S Vietnamese village of My Lai
Details leaked – Congress was asked to investigate
Army scapegoated Lieutenant William Calley – said to be exceeding his orders – found guilty, sentenced to 20 years' hard labour
Life magazine published pictures of the massacre – public found shocking
700,000 anti-war protesters demonstrated in Washington DC in November 1969 – largest political protest in US history
Nixon's contribution
Peace negotiations
: National Security Adviser Henry Kissinger had regular meetings with the North Vietnamese chief peace negotiator
Vietnamisation of the war effort:
South Vietnamese forces built up, US troops withdrawn – 400,000 left 1969-71
Bombing:
increased bombing campaigns to show he was not soft on communism
Cambodia
: Ordered a US invasion of VC bases in Cambodia – created outrage across the world and in USA
Pressure on USSR
: asked Moscow to encourage N Vietnam to end the war
Pressure on China
: as relations improved Nixon visited in 1972 and asked Chinese to put pressure on N Vietnam to end the war
Withdrawal of US forces:
peace agreement signed between N and S allowing Nixon to pull out US troops completed by March 1973
Why did South Vietnam fall to Communists after 1973?
N Vietnamese renewed their offensive and captured Saigon in April 1975
S Vietnamese could not resist without US military aid
Nixon had promised to continue financial aid and military support but Congress would not allow this – thought S Vietnamese government was corrupt and did not have majority support
How did the War affect policy of containment?
Severely damaged the idea – had failed to stop the spread of communism in Vietnam
Actually assisted the spread of communism – increased support for communists in Laos and Cambodia – both were communist by 1975
Propaganda disaster for USA – chemical weapons, propping up corrupt regime, atrocities committed by US forces
Entered into a period of greater understanding with USSR and China
Consequences of the War:
Vietnamese citizens:
Poisoned by dioxins from chemical warfare
Continuing injuries from unexploded mines and bombs
Disfigurement caused by napalm
Vietnamese society
5Mn homeless
Thousands became 'lost people' and tried to sail to Malaysia and Hong Kong
~ a million refugees moved to the west
Thousands driven into shanty towns near US bases and resorted to prostitution and drug abuse
Created of a large black market to supply luxuries to US forces
Environment:
Chemical warfare damaged crops
=> food shortages
5.4Mn acres of forest and the plants and animal in it were destroyed
Streams and rivers were poisoned
US troops:
Many became drug addicts – cheap heroin from Laos and Cambodia
Veterans not welcomed back as heroes and many found it hard to adjust to civilian life
PTSD
Cancer from Agent Orange
Cuban Missile Crisis
Background
Large island 160km from Florida
Cuba had been an ally of the USA for a long time
Americans owned most Cuban businesses
USA had a huge naval base at Guantanamo Bay
Before 1959 – governed by President Batista
– American-backed dictator
1959 – Fidel Castro set up pro-Communist government
–> after three year guerrilla campaign
How successful was US containment of Cuba 1959-61
Frosty relationship but no direct confrontation
Castro nationalised US businesses but allowed USA to keep its naval base
Cuba was importing arms from USSR – known by American spies
Jan 1961 – USA broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba
–> would not tolerate Soviet satellite in US sphere of influence
April 1961 – Bay of Pigs
Bay of Pigs – April 1961
Kennedy supplied arms, equipment and transport for 1400 Cuban exiles to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro
Invasion was a disaster
Castro and Khrushchev scornful of Kennedy's pathetic attempt to remove Communism
Taken as evidence USA would not get directly involved in Cuba
What interest did USSR take in Cuba after Bay of Pigs
Soviet arms flooded into Cuba
May 1962 – USSR announced this publicly
July 1962 – Cuba had the best-equipped army in Latin America
September 1962 – Cubans had Soviet missiles, patrol boats, tanks, radar vans, missile erectors, jet bombers and fighters, and help of 5000 Soviet technicians
How did USA respond to Soviet military assistance for Cuba
Were alarmed – especially by the possibility of nuclear weapons
September 1962 – CIA told Kennedy USSR would not send nukes
Kennedy warned USSR he would prevent Cuba becoming a nuclear base 'by whatever means necessary'
USSR assured USA they would not put nukes in Cuba
What did the U-2 photographs show in October 1962
USSR was building nuclear missile sites
Some were nearly finished, others were being built
Some already had missiles, others were awaiting delivery
Experts said the most developed sites could be ready in 7 days
20 Soviet ships were on the way to Cuba with missiles
Kennedy formed a special team of advisors called Ex. Comm
Why did USSR place nukes on Cub
Bargain with USA – could agree to remove them in return for concessions from USA
Test USA – wanted to see how determined Americans were – would JFK back down or face up to USSR
Trap USA – wanted USA to find them and get drawn into a nuclear war
Upper hand in arms race – wanted to close missile gap between USA and USSR – unlikely USA would launch a first strike on Cuba
Defend Cuba
Kennedy's options in October 1962
Do nothing
Soviets would never strike because USA had greater nuclear arsenal => assured destruction
But: would make USA look weak
Surgical airstrike to destroy the missile bases
get rid of them before they were ready
But: no guarantee of total destruction => one undestroyed site could launch counter attack
Soviet soldiers might be killed => retaliation
Attack with no warning could be seen as immoral by international community
Invade Cuba by land and sea
Could get rid of Castro as well as missiles
But: Soviets would probably respond
–> eg. protecting Cuba or taking over West Berlin
Apply diplomatic pressure
Get the UN to intervene
Would avoid conflict
But: make USA look weak if it was forced to back down
Naval blockade of Cuba
Stop Soviet ships bringing any more military supplies into Cuba and call for them to withdraw what was already there
Would not be a direct act of war but would show USA was serious
–> Khrushchev would have to make the next move
But: did not solve the problem there were already missiles on Cuba
USSR could respond by blockading Berlin
This option was chosen
How was it resolved
22nd October 1962: Kennedy announced the blockade and called on USSR to withdraw its missiles
23rd: Khrushchev said he did not acknowledge the presence of nukes on Cuba and would not observe the blockade
24th: first Soviet ships approached the blockade but turned back
25th: Work on missile bases continued rapidly
26th: Khrushchev said the bases were only defensive but they would remove the missiles if USA assured they wouldn't attack Cuba
27th: Khrushchev said USSR would withdraw missiles if USA withdrew missiles from Turkey – Kennedy did not accept
27th: US pilot killed when U-2 plane shot down over Cuba
–> Kennedy advised to launch immediate attack but delayed
–> told Khrushchev he would accept the terms but if USSR did not withdraw an attack would follow
28th: Khrushchev agreed to withdraw the missiles
What was the result of the Cuban missile crises
Soviet nuclear missiles withdrawn under UN supervision
Cuba remained communist and continued to be armed by USSR with conventional weapons
Kennedy's reputation increased – he made Khrushchev back down
Khrushchev benefited – highlighted his role as responsible peace-maker
Both sides prepared to take further steps to prevent a nuclear war having come so close
Permanent hotline set up between Kremlin and White House
1963: Nuclear Test Ban Treaty
Strengthened belief in containment rather that direct, interventionist approach
Korean War Continued
Why did the UN become involved in the Korean War
Had been involved in the establishment of new anti-Communist government of South Korea
Both governments claimed to be legitimate government of all Korea
Kim Il Sung wanted to unite Korea under communism – if UN failed to oppose it, USA would have
Truman put pressure on SC to condemn NK actions and call for a withdrawal
USSR was boycotting so couldn't use its veto
UN response to events in Korea in June 1950
SC meeting organised immediately
–> decided that NK had broken world peace
–> passed a resolution calling on North Korea to withdraw their armed forces
Called on NK to withdraw to 38th Parallel
US took command of UN operation – organised troops from US and 15 other countries
Why did USA oppose NK invasion of SK
Invasion would encourage a Chinese attack on Formosa
=> would threaten Japan
–> major shift in power balance between communism and capitalism
Domino theory – Truman interested in Far East
To undermine communism
Able to fight communism without directly attacking Russia
How was USSR involved
Kim Il Sung visited Stalin
–> Stalin gave permission to invade SK because he didn't think USA would get involved
Chance to discomfort America without directly confronting them
Why did USA provide most armed forces
Policy of containment
Had been closely involved in establishment of Republic of Korea
–> was internationally accepted as SK's protector
As they had appealed to the UN, they should provide large numbers to help
Why did it end in Stalemate
Chinese forces were strong
–> would suffer many casualties to defeat them
4Mn were already dead and 5Mn were already homeless
Did events in Korea show that the
UN was effective in peacekeeping?
UN took decisive action
Able to preserve the frontier between NK and SK
But: UN's policy was that Korea should become one country with free, supervised elections
–> Korea remained divided
Both sides remain hostile towards each other
How great a threat was the
Korean War to world peace
If US force had moved into mainland China, Soviets would enter the war (Sino-Soviet Mutual Alliance), threatening world peace
USSR gave arms to NK
MacArthur thought nukes should be used
But: UN moved quickly, decisively and effectively and stood up to an act of aggression
Ultimately the invasion was unsuccessful
Truman did not want the war to move to mainland China, MacArthur was dismissed
1951: USA, USSR, China started negotiations to end the war