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Chapter 17 (17.4 (Calvin Continues the Reformation (Calvinism Spreads (One…

- - - - From 1545 to 1563, at the Council of Trent, Catholic bishops and cardinals agreed on several doctrines:
        
        Christians needed faith and good works for salvation. They were not saved by faith alone, as Luther argued.
        
        The Bible and Church tradition were equally powerful authorities for guiding Christian life.
        
        • The Church’s interpretation of the Bible was final. Any Christian who substituted his or her own interpretation was a heretic.
        
        Indulgences were valid expressions of faith. But the selling of indulgences was banned.
    - - Ignatius grew up in his father’s castle in Loyola, Spain.The
        great turning point in his life came in 1521 when he was injured in a war.While recovering, he thought about his past sins and about the life of Jesus.Ignatius began writing a book called Spiritual Exercises that laid out a day-by-day plan of meditation, prayer, and study. In it, he compared spiritual and physical exercise
  - - - Despite religious wars and persecutions, Protestant churches
        flourished and new denominations developed. The Roman Catholic Church itself became more unified as a result of the
        reforms started at the Council of Trent.Some women reformers had hoped to see the status of women improve as a result of the Reformation. Women’s roles were still severely limited.Protestant artists produced fewer religious works.Instead, they created more historical scenes, scenes of daily life, landscapes, portraits, and still lifes
    - - As the Catholic Church’s moral and political
        authority declined, individual monarchs and states gained power.This led to the development of modern nation-states.The Reformation’s questioning of beliefs and authority also laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment.This intellectual movement, which stressed rational thought, would sweep Europe in the late 18th century.It led some to reject all religions and others to
        call for the overthrow of existing governments.
  - - - Many women played prominent roles in the
        Reformation.Other noblewomen also protected reformers.The wives of some reformers, too, had influence. Katherina Zell, married to Matthew Zell of Strasbourg, once scolded a minister for speaking harshly of another reformer.
    - - One such group baptized only those old enough to decide to be
        Christian.They said that persons who had been baptized as children should be rebaptized as adults. These believers were called Anabaptists, The Anabaptists taught that church and state should be separate, and they refused to fight in wars
  - - - Calvin believed that the ideal government was a theocracy, a government controlled by religious leaders.When Calvin arrived there in the 1540s, Geneva was a self-governing city.He and his followers ran the city according to strict rules. Everyone attended religion class.Calvinism’s strictness inspired some Protestants to destroy works of religious art in churches and public places,
    - - One admiring visitor to Geneva was a Scottish preacher named John Knox.Each community church was governed by a group of laymen called elders or presbyters 'followers of Knox became known as Presbyterians.They also deposed their Catholic ruler,
        Mary Queen of Scots.
      - Many Protestant churches today trace their roots to Calvin.Over the years, however, many of them have softened Calvin’s strict teachings.
    - - When Martin Luther posted his 95 Theses in 1517, John Calvin had been only eight years old.But Calvin grew up to have
        as much influence in the spread of Protestantism as Luther did.
      - Calvin published Institutes of the Christian Religion.This book
        expressed ideas about God, salvation, and human nature.It was a summary of Protestant theology, or religious beliefs Calvin wrote that men and women are sinful by nature.Taking Luther’s idea that humans cannot earn salvation, Calvin went on to say that.God chooses a very few people to save.
- - - - Critics of the Church claimed that its leaders were corrupt.The popes who ruled during the Renaissance patronized the arts,
        spent extravagantly on personal pleasure, and fought wars.
      - Pope Alexander VI, for example, admitted that he had fathered several children.Many popes were too busy pursuing worldly affairs to have much time for spiritual duties.
      - Many priests and monks were so poorly educated that they could scarcely read, let alone teach people Others broke their priestly vows by marrying, and some drank to excess or gambled.
    - - People had come to expect higher standards of conduct from priests and church leaders.They denied that the pope had the right to worldly power.They also taught that the Bible had more
        authority than Church leaders did.
  - - - In 1517, Luther decided to take a public stand against the actions of a friar named Johann Tetzel. Tetzel was raising money to rebuild St. Peter’s Cathedral in Rome He did this by selling indulgences which was a pardon.Unfortunately, Tetzel gave people the impression that by buying indulgences, they could buy their way into heaven.
      - Luther was troubled by Tetzel’s tactics.In response, he wrote 95 Theses or formal statements, attacking the,“pardon-merchants.”he posted these
        statements on the door of the castle church.Someone copied Luther’s words and took them to a printer.His actions began the Reformation,
        a movement for religious reform.It led to the founding of Christian churches that did not accept the pope’s authority.
    - - People could win salvation only by faith in God’s gift of forgiveness.The Church taught that faith and “good works” were needed for salvation.
      - All Church teachings should be clearly based on the words of the Bible.Both the pope and Church traditions were false authorities.
      - All people with faith were equal. Therefore, people did not need priests to interpret the Bible for them.
  - - - He summoned Luther to the town of Worms in 1521 to stand trial. Told to recant, or take back his statements, Luther refused: A month after Luther made that speech, Charles issued an imperial order, the Edict of Worms. Luther got shamed and they ordered not to give him shelter or food. Then he returned to Germany and he saw his ideas where being practiced and that how the religion called Lutherans started
    - - People liked Luthers revolutionary ideas and many German peasants revolted.Bands of angry peasants went about the countryside raiding monasteries, pillaging, and burning.Luther got scared and he wrote a pamphlet saying to show the peasants no mercy and many people died.Many peasants felt betrayed and rejected Luthers religious leadership
    - - German princes who remained loyal to the pope agreed to join forces against Luther’s ideas.Those princes who supported Luther signed a protest against that agreement.These protesting princes came to be known as Protestants.Eventually, the term Protestant was applied to Christians who belonged to non Catholic churches.
      - In contrast to the bitter peasants, many northern German princes
        supported Lutheranism.While some princes genuinely shared Luther’s beliefs, others liked Luther’s ideas for selfish reasons.They saw his teachings as a good
        excuse to seize Church property and to assert their independence from Charles V
    - - Initially, Church officials in Rome viewed Luther simply as a
        rebellious monk who needed to be punished by his superiors.However, as Luther’s ideas became more popular, the pope realized that this monk was a serious threatIn one angry reply to Church criticism, Luther actually suggested that Christians drive the pope from the Church by force.
      - In 1520, Pope Leo X issued a decree threatening Luther with excommunication unless he took back his statements.Luther did not take back a word.Instead, his students at Wittenberg gathered around a bonfire and cheered as he threw the pope’s decree into the flames. Leo excommunicated Luther.
  - - - Henry took steps to solve his marriage problem him- self.In 1529, he called Parliament into session and asked it to pass a set of laws that ended the pope’s power in England.This Parliament is known as the Reformation Parliament.
      - Henry secretly married Anne Boleyn who was in her twenties. Shortly after, Parliament legalized Henry’s divorce from Catherine.Henry’s break with the pope was completed when Parliament voted to approve the Act of Supremacy.
    - - After Anne Boleyn gave birth to a daughter, Elizabeth, she fell out of Henry’s favor.Eventually, she was charged with treason. She was found guilty and beheaded in 1536.Almost at once, Henry took a third wife, Jane Seymour. In 1537, she gave him a son named Edward, but she died soon after. Henry married three more times. None of these marriages, however, produced children.
    - - Henry wrote a stinging attack on Luther’s ideas.In recognition of Henry’s support, the pope gave him the title“Defender of the Faith.” Political needs, however, soon tested his religious loyalty.He needed a male heir.Henry feared that a civil war would start if he died without a son as his heir.
      - His wife Catherine couldnt have children and he wanted to divorce but he couldnt because divorce wasnt a thing that should be done in a catholic church
    - - Elizabeth I was determined to return her kingdom to Protestantism.Parliament followed Elizabeth’s wishes and set up the Church of England, or Anglican Church, with Elizabeth as its head.This was to be the only legal church in England.
      - Elizabeth decided to establish a state church that moderate Catholics and moderate Protestants might both accept.To please Protestants, priests in the Church of England were allowed to marry.To please Catholics, the Church of England kept
        some of the trappings of the Catholic service such as rich robes.
    - - By taking this moderate approach,Elizabeth brought a level of religious peace to England. Religion, however, remained a problem. Some Protestants pushed for Elizabeth to make more far-reaching church reforms. At the same time, some Catholics tried to overthrow Elizabeth and replace her with her cousin, the
        Catholic Mary Queen of Scots.