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Mutualism (Parasitism, Commensalism, Symbiosis. (Red-billed oxpecker eats…

- - - - mutualism is not normally altruistic, both parties may not benefit from every interaction. Fitness increases in one species are at expense of other so leads to conflicts of interest - recipricol exploitation.
        
        Star orchid in Madagascar. - moths with longest tongue would be best at getting nectar at end of spurs. Moths have to get close to flower to get what flower wants (pollination). if moth does not get close contact with flower, it wont get pollinated. if nectar spur short then moth does not get close so does not pollinate as does not get pollen, so shorter flowers at a disadvantage as well
        
        Nilsson (1988) - experiment = pollination success of male and female is reduced by experimental shortneing of the floral tube. Natural pollination is carried out mainly by Sphinx ligustri - the flowers with the longest tubes have the highest fruit set.
        
        Squeezed nectar up spurs and tied thread round spur so nectar close to moth than should be. as shorter floral tube length, orchid does less well. did over years, males and females fitness, both species.
        there was a decline in orchid fitrness as tube length shortened. lenght of moth tongue affecting interaction? experimental snip bits off tongue, but unethical.
        
        sometimes we can see correlations between moth pollinator tongues and floral spurs. its very tempting to say its co-evolution when seen in the wild. but adaptive radiation of columbo birds have variation in floral lenght.
        
        Individuals with longest tongues are selected for as they obtain greatest food rewards, selection alternated between plant and pollinator, causing a continual and gradual elongation of pollinators tongue and flowers spur.
        Plants with the longest spurs are selected for as reproductive organs opitimally contact the pollinators body providing the greatest reproduction
        
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  - - - females carrying pollen enter syconium and pollinate female flowers. they lay eggs in some of these flowers and hence destroys them. When males hatch, they chew open seeds and mate with females. Females then pick up pollen from male flowers and disperse. this leeds to fundamental conflict.
        wasps pollinate the figs.
        female flowers turn into seeds, male turn into pollen. females lay eggs in female parts and grubs develop on seeds and eat it. when they hatch, males fertlise females, females get out of hole and take pollen with them to the next fig and lay their eggs (complete cycle).
        
        wasps fitness depends on destroying fig seeds. fig needs wasps to take pollen and spread pollen. but female success is negatively associated to wasp production. conflict. pollinator wasp offsrping negatively associated by number of viable seeds produced by fg.
        
        wasps dont overproduce offspring as wpuld result in no more figs. figs put a sanction on wasps to make sure this doesnt happen.
        figs are good at aborting unpollinated fruit that they have. some fig wasps pick up pollen passively. other wasps stuff pockets with polllen when leave
        
        Jander & Herre - introduced wasps that are not carrying pollen into figs that are normally passively pollinated but figs that arent pollinated that are normally pollinated by active pollinators get rid of fruit. figs control wasps - correlation with extent of cheating in natural populations of wasps. fig with stronger sanctions have lower rates of cheating.
- - - - Scars are left on the yucca by mother moths laying eggs. so Pellmyr & Huth counted scars and eggs in retained and aborted flowers. Those flowers with more scars and those with large numbers of eggs tended to be aborted.
        
        the mutualism relationship is prone to exploitation by another species. different kinds of cheating moths that have lost the ability to carry pollen between flowers. they instead just lay eggs and target developing flowers after first moth has parasitised them.
        
        Cheating - mtDNA phylogeny indicates single origin of early cheaters and 2 originss of late cheaters. cheating arose a long time ago. How was it persisted? Phylogeny supports idea that cheating arise following host shift to a host where there is already a pollinator.