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I.Changing Paradigm范例 of Management History of management thought (3. The…

- - - - 1- Qualification based hiring，People should be hired because their technical training and education qualifies them to do their jobs, not because of their family or political connections.
      - 2- Merit-based promotion， Promotion should be based on experience and achievement. Managers, not the organizational owners decide who is promoted.
      - 3- Chain of command ，Each position or job is part of a chain of command that clarifies who reports to whom throughout the organization. A grievance不平 procedure and a right to appeal protect people in lower positions.
      - 4- Division of labor，Tasks, responsibilities and authority are clearly divided and defined.
      - 5- Impartial application of rules and procedures，Rules and procedures apply to all members of the organization and will be applied in an impartial公正的 manner, regardless of one’s position or status.
      - 6- Recorded in writing，All administrative decisions, acts, rules or procedures will be recorded in writing.
      - 7- Managers separate from the owners ，The owner of the organization should not manage or supervise it.
      - characterized by a specialization of labor, a specific hierarchy, a formal set of rules and a rigid promotion and selection criteria.
      - Fairness + the goal of efficiency+logical rules and procedures for decision making.
      - many critics
        
        Managers are supposed to influence employee behavior by fairly rewarding or punishing employees for compliance or non-compliance with organizational policies, rules and procedures. In reality, however, most employees would argue that managers emphasize punishment for noncompliance much more than rewards for compliance.
        
        By encouraging managers to apply well-thought rules and procedures, consistent manner to everyone in the organization, bureaucratic control is supposed to make companies more efficient and effective. However, if managers put the rules above all else, it may have a negative effect.
        
        The need to divide labor and specialize can foster feelings of employee alienation and estrangement隔阂. As the demands of society become more complex, the need increases for interpersonal communication and sharing between employees of the resulting organizations.
        
        Bureaucratic organizations, due to their rule and policy driven decision making, can be highly resistant to change and slow to respond to consumers and competitors.
      - Division of Labour + Career Orientation + Impersonality + Authority Hierarchy + Formal Selection + Rules and Regulations
    - - manager is primarily responsible for increasing the organization's productivity.
      - General Approach
        
        Developed standard method of performing each job
        
        • Selected workers with appropriate abilities for each job
        
        • Trained workers in standard method
        
        • Supported workers by planning their work and eliminating interruptions
        
        • Provided wage incentives to workers for increased output
      - Contributions
        
        Demonstrated the importance of compensation of performance
        
        • Initiated the careful study of tasks and jobs
        
        • Demonstrated the importance of personnel selection and training
      - Criticisms
        
        • Did not appreciate the social context of work and higher needs of workers
        
        • Did not acknowledge variance变动 among individuals
        
        • Tended to regard workers as uninformed and ignored their ideas and suggestions
      - clear division of labor between management and employees. // management was not only superior intellectually to the average employee but also had a positive duty to supervise them and organize their work activities
      - scientific management as the best management approach for achieving productivity increase. It rested on the manager's superior ability and responsibility to apply systematic knowledge to the organizational work setting.
      - four principles of scientific management:
        
        A scientific management methodology to be developed
        
        Managers should assume the responsibility for selecting, training and developing the employees
        
        Managers should fully cooperate with employees to insure the proper application of the scientific management method
        
        Management should become involved with the work of their employees as much as possible. The management takes over all the work for which they are better fitted than the workman, while in the past almost all of the work was thrown upon the men
      - close supervision flies in the face of all contemporary organizational research demonstrating close supervision is counterproductive.// the piece rate system all too often is either inapplicable in today's computerized assembly lines or is compromised by management continually raising the quota./// Motion study is to break each task or job into its separate motions and then to eliminate those that are unnecessary. Their system later became known as "speed work" which was achieved by eliminating unnecessary motions.
    - - Fourteen management principles:
        
        1. Division of Work: Division of work and specialization produce more and better work with the same effort.
        
        2. Authority and responsibility: A manager’s authority, which is the “right to give orders”, should be commensurate with the manager’s responsibility. However, organizations should enact controls to prevent managers from abusing their authority.
        
        3. Discipline: Clearly defined rules and procedures are needed at all organizational levels to ensure order and proper behavior.
        
        4. Unity of command: An employee should receive orders from only one superior. Employees cannot adapt to dual command.
        
        5. Unity of direction: Organizational activities must have one central authority and one plan of action. Similar activities in an organization should be grouped together under one manager.
        
        6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest: The interests of one employee or group of employees are subordinate to the interests and goals of the organization and cannot prevail over it.
        
        Remuneration of personnel: Salaries are the price of services rendered by employees. It should be fair and provide satisfaction both to the employee and employer.
        
        8. Centralization: The optimum degree of centralization varies according to the dynamics of each organization. The objective of centralization is the best utilization of personnel.
        
        9. Scalar chain: A chain of authority exists from the highest organizational authority to the lowest ranks and includes every employee. Each position is a part of a vertical chain of authority where each worker reports to just one boss.
        
        10. Order: Organizational order for materials and personnel is essential. There should be no overlapping.
        
        11. Equity: Equity is a combination of kindliness and justice. The desire for equity and equality of treatment are aspirations to be taken into account in dealing with employees.
        
        12. Stability of tenure of personnel: In order to attain the maximum productivity of personnel, it is essential to maintain a stable work force.
        
        13. Initiative: Because it is a “great source of strength for business,” managers should encourage the development of initiative, the ability to develop and implement a plan.
        
        14. Team work: Teamwork is fundamentally important to an organization. Creating work teams and using extensive face-to-face verbal communication encourages this.
      - Concept of informal organization, organizations are communication systems organizational communication flows from the bottom to the top.
        
        managers to develop a sense of common purpose,willingness to cooperate is strongly encouraged
        
        Managers should treat employees properly because their acceptance of authority may be critical to organizational success.
        
        the manager's ability to exercise authority is strongly determined by the employee's "zone of indifference" where orders are accepted without undue question
        
        Four factors affecting the willingness of employees to accept authority
        
        Employees must understand the communication
        
        Employees accept the communication as being consistent with the organization's purposes
        
        Employees feel their actions will be consistent with the needs and desires of the other employees
        
        Employees feel they are mentally and physically carry out the order from the higher authority
- - - - Open systems must interact with the environment to survive; closed systems need not. In the classical management science perspectives, organizations were frequently thought of as closed systems.
      - Sub-System: a sub-system is part of the whole system that depend on one another. For example, departments make up divisions in an organization. An accounting department may have a receivables group, an accounts payable group, etc. That same accounting group may have a computer system to aid them in their work.
      - Synergy协同作用 means that the whole is greater than the sum of its parts. Systems, to prosper and survive, must have synergy. Synergy means that the combined and coordinated actions of many other parts of the system (sub-systems) achieve more than all the individual parts could have achieved if acting alone.
      - Entropy is a universal property of systems and refers to their tendency to run down and die. If a system does not receive fresh inputs and energy from its environment, it will eventually cease to exist. Organizations must monitor their environments, adjust to changes and continuously bring in new inputs in order to survive and prosper. Managers try to design the organization/environment interfaces to reduce entropy.