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Literature and Philosophy ((Duty and Morality: how they interact, and on…

- - - - Connection between "Utilitarianism" and "The Ones Who Walked Away from Omelas":
        Mill's work and Le Guin's works prove to be connected, via their differing stances on the morality of consequentialist ethics. Mill's work follows the principles of consequentialist ethics in its proposal that the course of action providing maximum utility/happiness is automatically the correct one; there is not much emphasis on the means in his work. Le Guin's work, on the other hand, strongly suggests against the morality of consequentialist ethics in its harrowing description of a child being tortured for the sake of the "maximum utility" of Omelas. While the principles of utilitarianism would agree with the citizens who choose to stay in Omelas, as the torture of the child indeed does allow for maximum utility, Le Guin's work implies that the torture of an innocent child, no matter the resulting benefit, is morally wrong; this goes against what consequentialist ethics call for, in its implication that the end does not necessarily justify the means.
        
        Connection between "Antigone" and "The Ones Who Walked Away From Omelas":
        The works of Sophocles and Le Guin are connected, in that they both address issues of duty to the state and morality. Le Guin's work depicts how duty to the state can sometimes contradict with what is morally good; this is shown in her description of how the torture of an innocent child is used to uphold and allow the city of Omelas to thrive and function properly. In "Antigone", Creon would be more likely to side with those who remain in Omelas, as he believes that the well-being of the state is more important than the well-being of a single individual (this is reflected in his decision to refuse Polynices's burial, at the expense of Antigone).
      - Connection between "Antigone" and "Utilitarianism":
        Sophocles's and Mill's works prove to be connected, when it comes to the concept of maximum utility. It is clear how this concept applies to utilitarianism, as it is defined as the concept stating that the morally correct and appropriate course of action is that which allows for the most happiness or utility. While "Antigone" does not use this term directly, it can be seen as aligning with Creon's perspective on refusing Polynices's burial. It can be said that Creon's decision to refuse burial to Polynices was made on the grounds of achieving maximum utility; when making this decision, Creon felt as if it was his duty to choose whatever would be most beneficial for the majority of the state. While this came at the cost of Antigone's suffering, Creon felt as if it was his duty as a leader of the state that would best benefit the majority of its inhabitants. Going against burying Polynices would achieve this, which is why he adamantly refused against his burial.
      - Connection between "Utilitarianism" and "Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals":
        These two works can be seen as connected, in that they present two rather opposite modes of judging what is morally correct. While Kant's work exemplifies deontological ethics, which suggests that the ends are more important than the means, Mill's work exemplifies consequentialist ethics, which suggest the very opposite (that is, that the ends are more important than the means).
    - - Connection between "Antigone" and "Eichmann in Jerusalem":
        Arendt's and Sophocles's works prove to be connected, in their address of the concepts of duty and morals. Arendt's work demonstrates Eichmann as someone who had a strong duty to the state; because of this blind duty, however, his morals became compromised and simply unacknowledged, as he aided in the process of deporting thousands of Jewish people to their deaths. Sophocles's work similarly touches on this idea of duty to the state being seen as coming into conflict with morality, as Antigone argues against Creon's decision to refuse burial to her brother, arguing that it is immoral and unjust in the eyes of the gods.
    - - Connection: "Eichmann in Jerusalem" and "The Ones Who Walked Away from Omelas":
        These two works are connected to each other when it comes to the concept of "conformity". In the case of Arendt's work, this is exhibited in Eichmann's blind conformity to participating in the works of the Nazi regime. In Le Guin's work, this is demonstrated in the conformity shown by the majority of the citizens of Omelas, who willingly choose to allow an innocent child to suffer and essentially be stripped of its human rights in favor of allowing their city to prosper. Both of these cases demonstrate how blind conformity without any consideration of the means can be dangerous and come into conflict with morality.
    - - Connecting "Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals" and "Eichmann in Jerusalem"
        Kant's work and Arendt's work can be seen as connected to each other via the concept of acting out of "good will". This term is something that Kant explicitly defines as acting in pursuit of good itself, rather than simply, blindly obeying orders from a higher-up in order to either gain reward or avoid punishment. By Kant's standards, Eichmann would be considered someone who failed to act out of the good will by choosing to blindly follow the orders of his superiors, rather than contemplating the morality behind his own actions. Additionally, in regards to Eichmann's choice to willingly work for a regime that killed millions of innocent Jewish people, Kant would have likely condemned Eichmann on the grounds that he failed to acknowledge the moral worth of his fellow human beings, treating them simply as a means to properly carry out his job; this goes against the principles of deontological ethics, which stress that the means are more important than the ends (here, the fact that Eichmann deported thousands of Jewish people is more significant than the end result of him simply following orders)..
      - Connection between "Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals" and "The Ones Who Walked Away from Omelas"
        These two works can be seen as being connected via the concept of deontological ethics. Kant's work strongly favors and exemplifies deontological ethics, in its emphasis on the notion that the means do not necessarily justify the ends, and in fact take precedence over them. Le Guin's work suggests that deontological ethics are more morally just than consequentialist ones, in its inherent suggestion that the torture of an innocent child, albeit used to achieve an ends of great prosperity for the city of Omelas, can never be classified as a morally just or correct thing to do, as it displaces the child's human rights and moral worth in favor of simply marking them as a stepping stone for achieving good for the masses.
    - - Connection between "Beyond Good and Evil" and "Utilitarianism":
        These two works can be seen as connected to each other, in that they present conflicting arguments in regards to what approach should be taken to determine what a morally correct course of action is. For Nietzsche, perspectivism is the correct route; this conflict's with utilitarianism's consequentialist outlook, which argues that any action, so long as it is the one producing the maximum utility, is automatically the correct course of action morally. Perspectivism argues that this type of outlook is too black in white in nature; while an outcome can be good, that does not necessarily mean that the means used to achieve it is not morally bad in itself.
      - Connection between "Beyond Good and Evil" and "Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals":
        These two works can be seen as connected, in that Nietzsche's push towards perspectivism directly conflicts with the values of deontological ethics that are stressed in Kant's work. A perspectivist outlook on deontological ethics would argue that they are too narrow-minded in their strong emphasis on the means through which a goal is achieved, and that they must see the bigger picture, which is that morality is not a strict dichotomy, but rather, a spectrum. The result of a morally wrong act can still produce what society would deem a morally good ends.
      - Connection between "Beyond Good and Evil" and "The Ones Who Walked Away from Omelas":
        These two works can be seen as being connected in relation to the concept of perspectivism. Nietzsche's work clearly places a strong emphasis on the need for perspectivism in reasoning and deciding what is morally good, depicting morality as a spectrum. In a way, Le Guin's work can also be seen as depicting perspectivism to a degree, as it showcases the extreme good (namely, the ability of Omelas to thrive and prosper) that can result from extreme bad (the torture of an innocent child), and shows to readers that deciding what is morally good and bad isn't necessarily immediately easy, as it pushes readers to contemplate the motivations behind both the people who choose to stay within Omelas and consent to the child's torture, as well as those who choose to leave the city out of disgust, and prompting readers to assess why the duties of the separate factions aligned differently.
- - - - Connecting "The Souls of Black Folk" and "The Metamorphosis":
        These works can be seen as connected in their analysis of how double-consciousness can impact one's own personal identity. In the Case of Du Bois's work, this is something explicitly demonstrated in his observation of how black people are forced to see themselves both through their own eyes and through the eyes of aggressive racism, which can lead them to becoming self-conscious and questioning their own worth as human beings. This is something similarly exhibited in the case of Gregor, who is forced to observe himself through his own eyes, as someone who clearly perceives himself as a human soul trapped within a bug's body, and the eyes of his family, who increasingly deems him as nothing more than a brutish monster; this is something that greatly impacts his sense of self and worth, and directly leads him to dying of grief at the story's end.
      - Connection between "But What Are You Really? The Metaphysics of Race" and "The Souls of Black Folk":
        These two works can be seen as connected when it comes to the ideas of racial constructivism and "the veil". When it comes to the "veil", it can be said that, from a racial constructivist perspective, the "veil" between white people and black people has no biological grounds and is simply rooted in racist, social ideas that call for the oppression of African-Americans. Additionally, Du Bois would likely agree with MIlls's notion of racial constructivism, as the incorrect attribution of "superior" qualities to white people which resulted in the creation of the "veil", again, has absolutely no biological grounds; it is simply a racist social narrative perpetuated to continue a vicious hierarchy of power that places white people on top.
    - - Connection between "Existentialism is a Humanism" and "Utilitarianism":
        When it comes to the idea of intersubjectivity, these two works prove to be connected. Sartre's work places a clear emphasis on the necessity for intersubjectivity, especially when it comes to existentialism, as it places an importance on the lives of other people when it comes to carrying out our own actions. Other people are very important, as they help shape our perception of ourselves and our own existence. It is important, therefore, to maintain responsibility over our actions and treat others in a humane way. Utilitarianism, in a way, subordinates intersubjectivity in favor of simply choosing what will produce the greatest amount of utility/happiness, or pleasure over pain; this does not necessarily take into consideration a greater amount of people, or focus much on the human natures of individual. Rather, it simply focuses on the goal of achieving maximum utility,
      - Connection between "Existentialism is a Humanism" and "The Souls of Black Folk": These works prove to be connected in regards to the idea of intersubjectivity. Sartre argues that intersubjectivity, or, the input from and relationships one forms with others, is extremely important when it comes to building personal identity. This is something addressed in Du Bois's work, as he discusses the "double-consciousness" that black people possess when examining their personal identities, as a result of societal racism. Their personal identities are directly impacted by their relationships with others (namely, white people), and, in this case, this leads to insecurity and discomfort with themselves.
      - Connection between "The Act of Killing" and "Existentialism is a Humanism":
        These two works are connected when it comes to assessing the issue of the degree one is responsible for their own actions. According to the principles of existentialism, man is in possession of total freedom; with this freedom, however, comes complete responsibility. Those who participated as killers in "The Act of Killing" sometimes attempt to justify their actions by claiming that they were simply following orders, or believing in the idea that they were fighting for "freedom"; to this, Sartre would argue that they are not any less responsible for the mass killings they participated in, because, at the end of the day, they had the freedom and choice to either participate in the killings or not, and they went with the former option.
    - - Connection between "Get Out" and "The Souls of Black Folk":
        The idea of the "veil", and how this impacts racial identity, is something that connects these two works. For Du Bois, it is clear that the metaphorical "veil" standing between white and black people is something that negatively impacts the racial identity of the African-American person, inflicting them with a sense of shame and inferiority that has no real plausible grounds. This idea is something demonstrated within "Get Out", in the character of Chris, who demonstrates apprehension towards meeting his girlfriend's white family, as he recognizes the traditional "veil" that has stood between their racial groups.
      - Connection between "Get Out" and "The Metaphysics of Race":
        These works can be seen as connected, in that they demonstrate similar views on racial constructivism. Mills elaborates on this term as race being not a biologically, but socially constructed idea accepted as a truth. This can be exemplified in the extreme case that "Get Out" presents, in which the brains of elderly white people are transplanted into young, black bodies. indeed, at a surface level, the elderly people inhabiting the young black bodies to appear to be black; however, we cannot really call them black, as they do not have the lived experience of an African-American person. This supports the idea that race is not something ascribed at the biological level, as the elderly white people in the black bodies, despite inhabiting those bodies, are not truly considered "black" by societal standards.
    - - Connection between "Eichmann in Jerusalem" and "The Act of Killing":
        These two works are similar, as they both focus on subjects who participated in helping perpetuate genocide (namely, Anwar and Eichmann), but both didn't do so as evil masterminds; rather, they were rather "terrifyingly normal" people simply following the orders they were given from officials above them. These works both demonstrate the capacity of the average person to participate in mass acts of evil, as well as the need to maintain a steady moral conscience as opposed to succumbing to blind obedience.
- - - - Connecting "Swann's Way" and "The Metamorphosis":
        These two works can be connected via their examinations of what constitutes personal and social identity. In "Swann's Way", social identity is depicted as being something entirely subjective in nature, not having much to do with the individual's actual essence, but rather, how other people perceive the individual. Kafka's work takes a similar stance in regards to this definition; this can be seen through how Gregor's family perceives his social identity in an entirely different way from how Gregor perceives himself by the end of the novel, declaring him to be inhuman and a soulless monster, while Gregor perceives himself as very much human until the bitter end. In regards to personal identity, Proust's work depicts it as being something that can be made up by the objects surrounding a person and the experiences that they have. Kafka's work also tends to agree with this notion, as shown by Gregor's resistance towards his mother and sister removing his "human" objects from his room; for Gregor, these are crucial reminders of his humanity.
      - Connection between "Swann's Way" and "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding":
        These two works prove to be connected, in that they both pose a similar, more empirical approach to how one acquire's their personal identity. Locke's work depicts personal identity, or, the "person", as being defined by the chain of memories and experiences, obtained via things like the senses, that constitute it. Proust's work agrees with this notion, in its emphasis on the strong role that memory and perception of surrounding objects play in terms of shaping one's personal identity and sense of self. Additionally, Proust's work complicates Locke's in its introduction of involuntary memory alongside voluntary memory. Locke argues that the "person" is made up of their memories. However, Proust's work raises the question of how involuntary memory fits into this idea of a person being constituted by a chain of memories.
      - Connection between "Swann's Way" and "Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory":
        These works can be seen as connected, via their address of the subject of "phenomenology". Phenomenology conveys the idea that reality is consistent of objects and events perceived by the human consciousness. This is something clearly exhibited as being true in the Proust work, as the narrator begins the work by saying how he is able to identify himself after waking up because of the objects around him, which bring him back to reality and help make up his personal identity. Phenomenology is something that Butler's work directly calls for, as viewing gender from a phenomenological perspective helps combat against socially constructed, restrictive and historically oppressive gender perceptions that largely plague today's society.
    - - Connection between "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" and "The Metamorphosis":
        These works prove to be connected in their address of the concept of "man" versus "person". Locke's definition of "man" strictly refers to the body, while "person" refers to the chain of experiences and memories that make up an individual. Applying these definitions to Kafka's work, it can be said that Gregor no longer inhabits the body of a man, but rather, that of a bug; however, as shown by Gregor's flow of thoughts and memories, he is still the same person, by Locke's definition.
    - - Connection Between ""Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory" and "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding":
        These two works can be seen as connected, in that they both suggest that people come into the world as "tabula rasas". While this is something that Locke explicitly defines as being true, stating that people do not come into the world with any pre-existing or innately known ideas, Butler implies this without explicitly invoking the term "tabula rasa", but supporting it in her assertion that gender is a performance and not something innate to human beings. Butler argues that gender is not innate to the human being themselves, and is actually something learned and performed over time.
    - - Connection between "Meditations on First Philosophy" and "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding":
        Descartes's work and Locke's work can be seen as contradictory to one another, in that the former supports rationalism (in other words, relying on reason and distrusting information obtained by the senses), while the latter's supports empiricism, which states that knowledge is directly obtained through one's experiences and senses.
      - Connection between ""Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory" and "Meditations on First Philosophy":
        These works can be seen as contradictory to each other, in that they take opposite stances when it comes to the idea of phenomenology. Butler's work strongly supports phenomenology, as she argues that basing judgements and perceptions off of experience rather than pre-existing societal stereotypes and restrictive boundaries is crucial to properly understanding gender. Descartes, however, would disagree with this idea that experiences are enough to properly judge what can be deemed correct and real or not; rather, he argues for the less empiricist and more rationalist stance of relying solely on reason.
    - - Connection between "The Second Sex" and ""Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory":
        These works can be seen as connecting to one another, in that they both demonstrate a firm stance on the idea that gender and gender roles are things not natural and innate to human beings, but rather, things that they take on over time, largely due to societal pressure for them to do so. Societal pressure to conform to restrictive and oppressive ideas of gender are harmful, and, as de Beauvoir points out, especially harmful for women, who are deemed "weaker" and "dependent" as a result.
      - Connecting "The Second Sex" and "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding":
        Locke's and de Beauvoir's works prove similar, in that they both suggest identity as being something that is constituted by experience. For Locke, this comes in the form of an individual's "person" being made from memories and experiences; no individual is born with innate qualities or perceptions, as they are "blank slates". De Beauvoir agrees with this idea of people starting off as blank slates, saying that negative qualities typically ascribed to women, like "dependency" and "weakness" are not inherent or innate to women themselves. Instead, women should be identified by the traits and experiences they acquire over time; this would lead to more proper attributions towards the female sex.
    - - Connection between "But What Are You Really? The Metaphysics of Race" and "The Second Sex":
        These two works can be seen as connected to one another, in that they both take rather constructivist approaches; for Mills, the approach applies to race, while for de Beauvoir, this applies to gender. Mills argues that race is something that is only ontologically and socially real, but not real in a biological sense. Similarly, de Beauvoir argues that (while sex is indeed biologically real) gender is something similarly socially constructed; this further justifies the notion that negative attributions to the female gender, such as "weakness", are not actually biologically inherent to women, but rather, the result of a misogynistic social narrative that has historically been accepted.