Literature and Philosophy
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How does intersubjectivity impact us?
Duty and Morality: how they interact, and on what grounds they should be formed
What Constitutes Identity and Existence?
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"Utilitarianism"
Author: John Stuart Mill (1806-1873)
Mill’s Utilitarianism seeks to explain the reasoning behind utilitarian philosophy, and counter criticisms against it. Mill begins the work by explaining that the theory of moral value underlying many philosophical principles can be boiled down to happiness, which is a concept that all ethical theories strive to obtain. Mill defines utilitarianism as being the opposite of the selfish, individualistic type of philosophy that critics paint it out to be; rather, he says, it is a concept that seeks to maximize the total amount of human happiness, or, as he terms it, “utility”. ” (also referred to as “the greatest happiness principle”). This foundation for utilitarianism states that “actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness; wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness”. Happiness, Mill goes on to say, is “intended pleasure and the absence of pain”. With these definitions in mind, it is fair to conclude that what Mill is attempting to say is that an act’s utility can be deduced by observing the summation of the pleasure it brings about, and subtracting from it the total amount of pain it brings about. In this calculation of utility, which essentially attempts to quantify the total amount of happiness brought about by an action, both the quality and quantity of the resulting pleasure and pain are taken into account. Mill argues that employing “expediency”, which he defines choosing the most beneficial course of action which maximizes utility, is crucial to following the principles of utilitarianism. Additionally, Mill introduces the concept of “social utility”, which argues that, in cases that involve choosing between opposing views of justice or issues on a larger, more societal scale, the solution can be found by following the course of action that benefits the majority of society in order to successfully maximize the utility gained from the decision. Mill closes his argument by proposing that the idea of justice works to help justify utilitarianism, as justice can be perceived as people’s response to violations of the rights of others, with rights being crucial to maintaining happiness (or, utility) at a societal level.
Mill’s work can be seen as incorporating various key concepts, such as the idea of consequentialist ethics. Consequentialist ethics essentially suggests that the ends justify the means; in other words, the consequences of an action take precedence over the means when judging the morality of an action. Utilitarianism falls under the category of consequentialist ethics, in that it places an emphasis on whatever course of action being the one that achieves the maximum happiness or utility as being the most morally correct and proper one, more so than stressing the ethics behind the means through which achieving the desired result is achieved. Another concept this work relates to is that of “a priori”, which is a philosophical term that translates to: “from the earlier”. It refers to knowledge that is able to be accessed prior to experience, and is typically associated with Kant, who argued that laws of ethics must be a priori. Mill incorporates this term into his work by arguing that even philosophers like Kant, who argue on the basis of a priori moral laws, ultimately rely on utilitarian principles, due to the fact that the basis of moral value is happiness.
"Eichmann in Jerusalem"
Author: Hannah Arendt (1906-1975)
Eichmann in Jerusalem details the trial of Adolf Eichmann, a Nazi official responsible for coordinating the deportation of millions of Jewish people to concentration camps located throughout Eastern Europe, where they were sent to die. Following the end of the war, Eichmann was detained by the United States, but eventually escaped to Argentina, where he was then captured by Israeli intelligence forces in 1960, and was eventually sentenced to death by hanging. While Arendt agrees with the punishment Eichmann was given, she raises the issue that central, significant issues regarding the underlying philosophical, moral, and political aspects of the case were not properly addressed. Arendt argues that, while Eichmann was aware of what his actions technically, he did not understand them in the moral sense; he was not a criminal mastermind behind the “Final Solution” policy, but rather, a loyal and blind follower of towards the officials who led him. Arendt argues that the primary reason why Eichmann was guilty lies within the fact that he refused to contemplate the morality of his actions, exchanging an ethical conscience in favor of demonstrating blind obedience. Arendt further argues that Eichmann’s case reflects the importance of maintaining strong moral values, and that the international community must develop proper means of handling issues that are unprecedented and heinous in nature, such as the Holocaust.
Arendt’s work raises several key concepts, such as the “banality of evil”, which implies that evil does not necessarily have to manifest itself in very conspicuous ways. Instead, it can appear in rather ordinary and unnoticed ways, such as how Eichmann was merely following orders without a strong sense of motivational hatred; rather, he simply sought to impress those above him. This idea of the banality of evil blends in with the concept of “terrifyingly normal”, which is a term that can be applied to Eichmann himself. Over the course of the trial, it was discovered that Eichmann had no distinct qualities, such as extreme apathy or insanity, that marked him as being relatively abnormal. Rather, he came across as an extremely average, run-of-the-mill man simply carrying out orders. The terrifying aspect of his normalcy comes in its suggestion that anyone, even extremely “normal” people like Eichmann, can be capable of carrying out acts that aid in supporting grand works of evil. Arendt’s work also introduces the concept of “bureaucratic massacre”, which refers to the systematic, institutional killing of people such as that featured within the Holocaust, which Eichmann was a participant of. This concept shows the dangers of people simply succumbing to blind obedience instead of maintaining strong moral consciences, as turning to blind obedience is what largely allowed the bureaucratic massacre of the Holocaust to succeed.
"Antigone"
Author: Sophocles
This play, which takes place in Thebes, primarily focuses on the conflict between Antigone, a young woman who has recently been informed of the deaths of her brothers Eteocles and Polynices, and Creon, Antigone’s uncle who has recently inherited the throne. The main conflict of the play centers around Antigone arguing in favor of the proper burial of Polynices, despite Creon’s decision to refuse him one, as he believes that Polynices, who rebelled against the extended rule of Eteocles, was a traitor to the state (and therefore should be banned from being buried). Antigone appeals to her sister, Ismene, for help in secretly carrying out Polynices’s burial; however, while Ismene says she agrees with Antigone’s stance morally, she refuses to help. Antigone is caught burying her brother, and Creon confronts both her and Ismene. Ismene finally gathers the courage to defend Antigone, but Antigone defends her innocence, and, ultimately, only Antigone is sentenced. While imprisoned in the cave, Antigone kills herself. The prophet Tereisias and Haemon, who is Creon’s son and Antigone’s lover, plead for mercy on Creon’s behalf. By the time Creon is willing to be merciful to Antigone, however, it is too late. Finding the sorrow too much to bear, Haemon kills himself; this then sparks the suicide of Creon’s wife. The play ends with Creon in a state of despair.
Antigone invokes several key concepts that have been noted over the course of the class. One such concept is the varying notions of duty and where it lies (whether that be to the state, family, or gods). Creon argues that his stance against burying Polynices is justified by the duty he holds to the state. Especially because he is the leader of Thebes, Creon argues that his position against burying Polynices is all the more important. As Polynices was considered a traitor to the state by rebelling against its current leader at the time, Creon believes that he must refuse him burial to set a proper example for others who may rebel, as they must see that there are consequences for such actions. This, in the long run, will lead to greater good and order for the masses. Antigone, on the other hand, believes that it is her familial duty to bury her brother, as she feels that the house of Oedipus has suffered enough; to Antigone, it is morally unjust to refuse her brother burial, especially after all the suffering their family has endured already. Antigone argues that, her desire to bury her brother more closely aligns with that of the gods, as proper burial was considered a necessary step in properly allowing a soul to pass on into the afterlife. This is where the concept of divine law versus human law comes into play, as Antigone raises the issue that laws passed by the state may not reflect what we think of as being inherently good or moral.
"The Ones Who Walked Away from Omelas"
Author: Ursula K. Le Guin (1929-2018)
The Ones Who Walked Away from Omelas is a short story, which tells of a fictional utopian city called Omelas. The work raises strong moral and ethical issues, as it is revealed that the citizens of Omelas are only allowed to live in a state of great peace and prosperity at the expense of an innocent child being locked away and tortured in a basement-like setting. The city of Omelas is depicted as being able to host grand parades, and invent grand scientific innovations, so long as a single child’s well-being and happiness is sacrificed as the means of allowing for these things. After finding out about the existence of this child, some residents choose to leave Omelas and never return while others choose to remain within the otherwise perfectly functioning society. The work, which features a unique narrative technique that aims to address readers directly, urges readers to question: to what degree does the ends really justify the means? It additionally prompts readers to debate whether happiness of the masses is truly morally correct if it means sacrificing the human rights of an innocent individual.
Le Guin’s work raises various key concepts, such as ideas of utopia and conformity. A utopia is defined as an imagined state of things where everything is perfect. Indeed, Omelas is depicted as a rather utopian setting, with the narrator detailing the great achievements and generally thriving nature of the city. However, the work also suggests that the cost of achieving such a grand utopian setting may not be worth the moral baseness of the means used to achieve it (namely, the torture of an innocent child). The work also raises the issue of conformity, by depicting people on two sides of the issue: those who choose to conform to the laws of Omelas, and consent to the torture of the child in order to preserve the happiness of the city, and those who walk away, who the speaker suggests are more morally just in their actions, but nevertheless make up the minority faction within the story.
"The Metamorphosis"
Author: Franz Kafka (1883-1924)
The Metamorphosis tells the story of Gregor Samsa, a traveling salesman who one day wakes up only to find that he has spontaneously and inexplicably transformed into a giant bug. Gregor’s manager visits his home, to inquire why Gregor is not attending work, and Gregor struggles to open the door, not understanding how to operate his new body. Once Gregor is finally able to open the door, the office manager flees in terror, and Gregor’s father forcefully directs Gregor back to the room with a cane and newspaper. Gregor’s sister, Grete, helps Gregor survive by feeding him trash and molded food, while Gregor hides himself under the couch to conceal his horrifying appearance. As time passes, the family discusses the financial burden that has been placed on them due to Gregor’s transformation and job loss, and each of the members obtain jobs to help adjust to this loss. In the meantime, Gregor begins to learn how to operate his new body, spending his time doing things like climbing up walls for enjoyment. One day, however, when Gregor notices his mother and sister moving his old furniture out of his room, Gregor finds himself unable to remain concealed under the couch, and emerges in an attempt to stop them, afraid that the furniture removal will lead to further loss of his humanity and will to transform back. This leads to his mother fainting, and frustration from his sister and father. Gregor’s father throws an apple that becomes lodged in Gregor’s back, after Gregor escapes to the kitchen during his outburst. Grete begins to demonstrate resentment towards Gregor, putting less effort into her tasks of feeding and cleaning after him, and the family takes on three boarders for extra money. The climax of the story occurs when Grete plays the violin for her family and the boarders, and Gregor, who can’t help feeling moved by the playing, emerges from his room to listen. This results in the boarders leaving without paying rent out of disgust, and an ensuing conversation by Gregor’s family in which Grete proclaims that the bug can no longer be considered her brother, and that he must be rid of for the family to continue on. Gregor, hearing this, returns to his room and dies out of grief.
The Metamorphosis primarily brings to mind the core concepts of social identity and personal identity. In this story, the two terms come to a bit of a conflict or dissonance, in that Gregor’s social identity in the eyes of his family is almost entirely different from the personal identity that he forms for himself. Gregor’s social identity, from the perspective of his family, gets increasingly worse as the story goes on. From the beginning of Gregor’s transformation, his father perceives him as a revolting beast who can only seek to harm others; this is why his interactions with Gregor (post-transformation) largely consist of him shooing Gregor back into his room, often through violent means. While his mother and sister have hope in some of Gregor’s humanity remaining deep within him, their perspectives of his social identity shift towards aligning that which his father holds by the end of the story. However, Gregor’s personal identity conveys a rather opposite perspective. Gregor, throughout the story, maintains a very “human” tone, acknowledging the strangeness of him finding trash delicious, and expressing genuine concern and care for his family, often expressing how he feels apologetic for the struggles he involuntarily imposes upon them. Gregor also suggests that his personal identity and sense of self is partially constituted by the objects around him; this is demonstrated by his objection to his mother and sister’s attempt to remove his furniture from his room, to allow him to freely crawl on the walls. Gregor, rather than embracing his bug nature fully, would rather keep his objec
"Swann's Way"
Author: Marcel Proust (1871-1922)
The segment of Swann’s Way read in class introduces a young narrator, growing up in Combray, who begins the story with a lofty discussion of sleep and habit, suggesting that, while sleep appears to change one’s surroundings, habit is something that makes the surroundings feel rather familiar. The narrator suggests that people can essentially be defined by the objects that surround them, and says that, upon waking up, they must piece together their identities little by little. Meanwhile, the narrator’s family is conversing with Charles Swann, a man well-respected by society and a friend of the family. The narrator expresses feelings of frustration at the fact that, due to Swann’s presence, his mother cannot give him a goodnight kiss. He is comforted by the fact, though, that she will read to him after Swann’s departure. The narrator then details how, after tasting a madeline dipped in tea, he experiences an episode of involuntary memory, during which he recalls his earlier youth.
This story invokes several key concepts, such as the idea of social identity. Social identity refers to a person’s sense of who they are, based on their relationships with and to others. On this subject, the narrator states: “our personality is a creation of the minds of others. Even the very simple act that we call ‘seeing a person we know’ is in part an intellectual one. We fill the physical appearance of the individual we see with all the notions we have about him, and of the total picture that we form for ourselves, these notions certainly occupy the greater part”. Essentially, what the narrator suggests is that the social personality of an individual is fundamentally subjective in nature, as it is something that can vary through the lenses of different people’s perceptions. Social identity is essentially the identity that others impose upon the individual, rather than something innate or inherent to the individual themselves. This work also raises the concept of voluntary versus involuntary memory. While voluntary memory is simply recalling the past deliberately, involuntary memory refers to a recollection of the past that is not triggered by conscious effort; this is something most clearly exhibited by the moment in which the narrator consumes a madeline, and is flooded with memories of his past. Personal identity, on the other hand, is something that the narrator suggests as being constituted by the objects surrounding the individual; this is what allows people to piece their identities back together after sleeping. The work additionally brings up the concept of phenomenology, which essentially suggests that reality is consistent of objects and events perceived by the human consciousness. The narrator of Proust’s work can be seen as taking a phenomenological approach to the human experience, in that, in his assertion that the objects surrounding people are what help distinguish their personal identities and allow them to safely piece them together after exiting the dream realm, he suggests that the objects and experiences one has are what defines their reality.
"An Essay Concerning Human Understanding"
Author : John Locke (1632-1704)
Locke’s work begins by attacking the Cartesian notion that people are inherently born with particular ideas in mind. Instead, Locke proposes that humans come into the world as “tabula rasas”, which translates into “blank slates”; this suggests that they are born with no pre-set ideas, and start out with no inherent knowledge. Therefore, Locke argues, even the idea of God cannot be considered innate. Instead, all knowledge is born out of experience; this is a concept referred to as empiricism, which suggests that knowledge is directly obtained from one’s senses and experiences. Locke suggests that personal identity is something that stems from one’s consciousness, which he defines as the stockpile of memories unique to an individual. Locke goes on to then define what makes someone a “man”, and what makes someone a “person”. Locke distinguishes these terms from one another by saying that “man” refers to the body that one inhabits, which makes him identifiable to others via physical appearance. “Person”, on the other hand, refers to one’s consciousness (and, therefore, the memories that constitute it as well). When discussing how the ideas of man and person intertwine with justice, Locke suggests that the person, rather than the man, should be held responsible for crimes. Therefore, a man who commits a crime while sleeping, for example, cannot be considered truly guilty due to the fact that, at the time of committing the crime, the person was not truly themselves, but rather, in an altered state of consciousness.
Overall, in incorporating the subjects of personal identity, consciousness and empiricism, as well as introducing topics such as the tabula rasa and man versus person, Locke illustrates a very individualistic idea of man as being rather self-made in nature. In the eyes of Locke, people are essentially blank canvases that change over time, becoming an amalgamation of the experiences that they have and the memories they acquire. Locke does not place a strong emphasis on the perception of others in the formation of our identities; rather, he portrays the identity as something largely created by people themselves.
"Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory"
Author: Judith Butler (1956-Present)
Butler’s work primarily centers around the notion that “gender identity is a performative accomplishment compelled by social sanction and taboo”. Rather than being a thing of ontology, gender is more of a performance, or, a series of acts. Rather than being a starting place, gender can be seen as something constructed over time; in other words, people come into the world first, and then construct their gender identities through their actions. While at a glance gender appears to be rather polar in nature, it actually proves to be much more complex, in that one can participate in different repetitions of acts that fall on seperate sides of this spectrum. Acts which stray from one’s gender intended by society may be subject to criticism from others and society, which pressures people to act in accordance with their societally designated gender norms. Because gender ideas are something instilled in people from a young age, it is easy for people to forget that they are engaging in performative acts, and mistake their constructed identities as coming naturally. Butler argues in favor of establishing gender’s genealogy from a more phenomenological perspective, and against the reification of gender’s binary restrictions.
This work invokes several key concepts, such as the idea of the phenomenological construction of identity. In explicating how gender is a phenomenological concept, Butler also incorporates the language of performing/performance, stating that gender identity is something acquired via one’s experiences over time (namely, their performance of acts typically associated with one side or another of the gender spectrum). Due to the fact that gender identity is simply a performance of acts, it is possible for one person to build their own identities by undertaking different performative acts, in spite of societal criticism which dictates otherwise.
"Meditations on First Philosophy"
Author: Rene Descartes (1596-1650)
Descartes’s work begins by introducing the idea that knowledge can only be obtained by beginning with a foundation of knowledge that is undeniably true; it is only through being derived from an entirely true concept that certainty and principles may be obtained. This is referred to as “foundationalism”. Everything not rooted in an undeniable truth is subject to being a falsity; this includes one’s experiences and senses. Because experiences and the senses can be replicated in a dream, one cannot rely on these things alone, as relying on them alone leaves one unable to distinguish reality from the dream world. In fact, Descartes supposes that, because an “evil genius” could be controlling us and feeding us entirely false sensory information, we should doubt our senses all the more (though this is a far reach, Descartes notes that we still cannot rule out the existence of this genius entirely due to the fact we cannot prove that he does not exist). Because of this, rather than an empirical approach, Descartes suggests a rationalistic approach, declaring that reason alone should be the basis of all knowledge. This approach must also be skeptical in nature, which calls for an individual to doubt everything around them that they cannot ascertain as being entirely true. Descartes goes on to discuss mind-body dualism, which states that the mind and the body are entirely separate from one another. Descartes additionally provides an examples of a truth which absolutely cannot be doubted: “I think therefore I am” (otherwise known as the “cogito”.
This work introduces several key concepts, such as rationalism, mind/body dualism, the dreaming doubt, skepticism, and the cogito. Overall, the image that Descartes illustrates of the self is one of skepticism and knowledge-based acquisition of knowledge. Without reasoning, one will ultimately be left unable to discern what is true from what is false.
"The Second Sex"
Author: Simone de Beauvoir (1908-1986)
This work begins by suggesting that women are oppressed by men, who characterize them as being “other” on every level; while they get to occupy the role of the self or subject, women are reduced to taking on the role of the object. While men are ascribed qualities asserting their independence and strength, women are assigned qualities of dependence and weakness. While understanding differences between things in terms of opposites is something that comes rather naturally to humans, Simone argues that, in attributing completely opposite characteristics to women, men are fundamentally denying them of their humanity. Women are reduced to taking on roles of being wives and mothers, while men are allowed to explore countless ones involving leadership and independence. She additionally states that “one is not born, but becomes a woman”, suggesting that women take on their roles as a product of societal pressure, not because they are innately or inherently inclined to do so.
The Second Sex introduces several key concepts, such as the historicity of bodies. This concept essentially refers to the fact that, due to the bodies of women being historically linked with oppression, the dependent roles and attributes ascribed to women have become mentally tied to their physical appearances. In this way, women’s bodies have become “marked bodies”, as a result of this strong mental association. This directly allows for the further oppression of women, despite the fact that they are not innately or inherently weaker than or dependent on their male counterparts.
"But What Are You Really? The Metaphysics of Race"
Author: Charles W. Mills (1951-Present)
Mills begins this work by arguing in favor of the dual-ontological nature of race, which essentially refers to the fact that, despite not being real in the eyes of biology, it is something that is real insofar as it has been ontologically deemed so, and as it is something we acknowledge as existing and being able to exert influence. In this, race produces a unique kind of objectivity, being real when perceived through a social lens, but false through a scientific one. Mills proposes that race is distinctive in its capacity to apparently be both real and not real at once.
Mills’s work brings to mind several key concepts, such is the idea of racial constructivism. This refers to his proposal that race is something ontologically constructed and socially accepted, as opposed to being a biological truth. Mills uses this idea of racial constructivism to make a distinction between qualities that are biologically inherent to the individual, as opposed to ones ascribed to the individual by the society around them.
"The Souls of Black Folk"
Author: W.E.B. Du Bois (1868-1963)
DuBois begins this work by raising the issue of the “color line”, which he defines as the often invisible yet sometimes palpable divide between races that is hierarchical in nature, placing white people at the top (with an example being Jim Crow segregation). He notes that white people are unfamiliar with the feeling of being deemed a “problem” by society, and recalls a childhood experience that made him aware of racism (which consisted of a white girl refusing to accept a greeting card from him). He uses the symbol of a veil to refer to the forced racial prejudice, accompanied by alienation, that lays between between black people and white people, as well as black people and society at a wider level. As a result of this veil imposed upon them by society, black people may begin to feel self-conscious when issues of poverty are raised, and some may begin to believe that white people are “superior” as a race, as a result of the profuse discrimination and oppression they are faced with. Du Bois argues that the values Emancipation calls for, such as freedom, education and political power for African Americans, alongside an emphasis on the value of black culture and community, are necessary in order to combat the negative effects the veil has produced.
A key concept introduced in DuBois’s work is the idea of double-consciousness, which relates to the unique type of subjectivity with which black people are forced to see themselves as a result of the veil’s existence. Double-consciousness essentially implies that black people are forced to see themselves through both the way they perceive themselves as individuals, as well as the way that societal racism depicts them to be.
"Existentialism is a Humanism" and "Freedom and Responsibility"
Author: Jean-Paul Sartre
Sartre introduces existentialism as a concept that is, contrary to belief, not pessimistic in nature; rather, he says, it employs harsh optimism, in that it demonstrates the ability of the individual to have control over their own lives, while also noting the responsibility towards their own actions that comes with this freedom. With total freedom, Sartre argues, comes complete responsibility over our own actions. Sartre begins shaping his argument by introducing the concept of “atheistic existentialism”, which he defines in the following manner: “Existence precedes essence...man exists, turns up, appears on the scene, and, only afterwards, defines himself”. Essence is a thing’s inherent value, purpose, or character, while existence simply refers to the mere state of reality of a thing. Sartre asserts that, while an object like a paper knife is brought to existence solely to fulfill a designated purpose (in other words, its essence precedes its existence), man exists with no such predetermined purpose. Sartre seeks to convey the idea that man is a being not created by a God to fulfill some specific purpose, but rather, as a being distinct because of his capability to define his own meaning. Sartre defines man as being entirely self-made, able to freely craft his own purpose in life as he desires. When arguing in favor of existentialism being a form of humanism, Sartre introduces the idea of subjectivity, or, the notion that an individual at some point, “realizes that he cannot be anything (in the sense in which we say someone is spiritual, or cruel, or jealous) unless others acknowledge him as such”. All subjectivity is intersubjectivity, Sartre says, as, in the process of coming to comprehend their own existence, men naturally come to the conclusion that their understanding of themselves is only purposeful because of the fact that the characteristics and traits that shape them are acknowledged by those they have formed social relationships with. To choose existentialism, Sartre argues, is to acknowledge that one’s self-knowledge and way of existence is shaped by the rest of humanity. Sartre ends his argument by stating than man is at the heart of his own “transcendence”, in that he is constantly pushing himself towards achieving self-surpassing aims. He then says that the human universe is one of human subjectivity. The relationship between man being constituted by his transcendence, and the human subjectivity of the universe, is how Sartre defines “existential humanism”; in realizing that he must decide for himself, and seek out means of liberation for and beyond himself, man realizes himself as “truly human”.
Other than the concepts of subjectivity/intersubjectivity, transcendence, essence, existence, and harsh optimism, Sartre also introduces the key notions of anguish, abandonment and despair. Anguish refers to the emotional pain that one may experience as a result of the need to act under moral responsibility, while abandonment refers to the notion that, without God or any authority providing objective moral laws, the individual is left to have moral responsibility over each of their own choices. Despair refers to the discouraging of hoping or relying on a miraculous act to occur, as this attempt towards a shift of responsibility is counterproductive to action.
"Get Out"
Director: Jordan Peele (1979-Present)
The movie begins by introducing Chris Washington, an African-American photographer who finds himself nervous and apprehensive about meeting the family of his white girlfriend, Rose Armitage. Rose’s parents, Dean and Missy, are a neurosurgeon and hypnotherapist, respectively. Soon after arriving, Chris is struck by the unsettling comments that Rose’s parents and her brother make regarding black people, as well as the eerie behavior of Georgina, the family’s housekeeper, and Walter, the groundskeeper, who are both African-American. Missy uses hypnotherapy on Chris to help him quit smoking, and he wakes up the next morning to find that the session was successful. Strangely, though, his phone has been unplugged, apparently on “accident” by Georgina, and is left without battery. Circumstances get stranger when the Armitage’s hold a get-together in which many wealthy white people visit. The most striking event occurs when Chris takes a photograph of Logan, a young African-American man married to an older white woman, which triggers him to rush after Chris yelling “get out”. Dean attempts to play this off as an epileptic seizure on Logan’s behalf. Dean proceeds to auction off a photo of Chris in his absence. Chris’s friend, Rod, recognizes a picture of “Logan” to actually be a missing man named Andre Hayworth; however, he reports this to the police to no avail. After Chris attempts to attack Rose’s brother, she uses a “trigger” implanted in him during the hypnotic session that causes him to lose consciousness. He awakens to find himself strapped to a chair, where Rose’s grandfather explains how their family aids in transplanting the brains of elderly white people into younger black bodies, allowing them immortality and youth. In a violent episode at the end of the movie, Rose, Dean, Georgina, Missy and Walter end up dying, and Chris is rescued by Rod.
"Get Out" features several key concepts discussed within this class, such as the idea of racial constructivism, which suggests that, rather than being biologically real, race is something that we have come to socially accept; this is reflected in the transplanting of the brains of white people into black bodies (simply because they are in a black body does not make them black in a cultural sense). This work additionally exhibits the effects of the "veil" between African-Americans and white people, which leads to separation; this is reflected in the social stigma held against Rose's relationship with Chris, which Chris recognizes, and is what leads to his initial apprehension towards meeting her family. This demonstrates one of the negative impacts of intersubjectivity, in that Chris understands his relationship and sees it through the eyes of racist others, and the society that has historically condemned interracial relationships.
"The Act of Killing"
Director: Joshua Oppenheimer (1974-Present)
Oppenheimer’s work is a documentary, which discusses the government-sanctioned, mass executions targeting communists that occurred within Indonesia during the 1960’s. This genocide led to the deaths of hundreds of thousands of innocents. In this movie, Anwar Congo, a former gangster and leader of a death-squad, is tasked with re-enacting his killings, and given the freedom to do so in the cinematic fashion of his choosing. Anwar and his colleagues choose to re-enact the killings in a vast array of cinematic styles, such as Western, film noir, and musical. This, coupled with the fact that Anwar also chose to continue working with right-wing Indonesian organizations that praise the genocide of the communists even after the genocide was finished, demonstrates that he and some of his friends similarly glorify their violent past actions. The group appears to be split between those who feel as if their participating in the massacre was justified by the government sanctioning them to do so, and those who feel as if their mass killings were inherently morally wrong. The film ends with Anwar becoming emotional, and showing signs of remorse towards his actions, which he can no longer whole-heartedly declare as morally right and justifiable.
This movie raises several key concepts. For example, it introduces the idea of the “gangster”, which, at the time of the genocide, many Indonesians believed as translating to “free men”. Those who participated in the communist massacres were largely instilled with the belief that their actions were justified as honoring their freedom. This is what made the killing of innocents seem more warranted in their minds. Additionally, it demonstrates that a strong moral conscience is separate from simply and blindly following orders, as choosing to blindly follow orders is what allowed for the massacre of over a million people to also seem more justifiable in the minds of the participants. This movie also demonstrates misconstrued intersubjectivity, in that, the"gangsters" of the war largely felt their actions were justified by the fact that they all had the same relative definition of what being a gangster meant (that is, one who fights for freedom and liberty); this positive, widely spread connotation is what made people feel the killings were more justifiable morally. Because the gangsters understood each other amongst themselves and in the eyes of the government to be fighters for liberty and freedom, they were able to think their killings were justifiable. Where they failed, however, was to see how their actions related to humanity at a larger scale, which is what intersubjectivity truly aims towards; because they weren't able to see from this more global perspective, they became more prone to thinking that the genocide, while sanctioned on a government and almost nation-wide scale, was something actually morally good, when, at a global scale, it clearly is not.
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Connection: "Eichmann in Jerusalem" and "The Ones Who Walked Away from Omelas":
These two works are connected to each other when it comes to the concept of "conformity". In the case of Arendt's work, this is exhibited in Eichmann's blind conformity to participating in the works of the Nazi regime. In Le Guin's work, this is demonstrated in the conformity shown by the majority of the citizens of Omelas, who willingly choose to allow an innocent child to suffer and essentially be stripped of its human rights in favor of allowing their city to prosper. Both of these cases demonstrate how blind conformity without any consideration of the means can be dangerous and come into conflict with morality.
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Connection between "Utilitarianism" and "The Ones Who Walked Away from Omelas":
Mill's work and Le Guin's works prove to be connected, via their differing stances on the morality of consequentialist ethics. Mill's work follows the principles of consequentialist ethics in its proposal that the course of action providing maximum utility/happiness is automatically the correct one; there is not much emphasis on the means in his work. Le Guin's work, on the other hand, strongly suggests against the morality of consequentialist ethics in its harrowing description of a child being tortured for the sake of the "maximum utility" of Omelas. While the principles of utilitarianism would agree with the citizens who choose to stay in Omelas, as the torture of the child indeed does allow for maximum utility, Le Guin's work implies that the torture of an innocent child, no matter the resulting benefit, is morally wrong; this goes against what consequentialist ethics call for, in its implication that the end does not necessarily justify the means.
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Connection between "Antigone" and "Eichmann in Jerusalem":
Arendt's and Sophocles's works prove to be connected, in their address of the concepts of duty and morals. Arendt's work demonstrates Eichmann as someone who had a strong duty to the state; because of this blind duty, however, his morals became compromised and simply unacknowledged, as he aided in the process of deporting thousands of Jewish people to their deaths. Sophocles's work similarly touches on this idea of duty to the state being seen as coming into conflict with morality, as Antigone argues against Creon's decision to refuse burial to her brother, arguing that it is immoral and unjust in the eyes of the gods.
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Connection between "Antigone" and "Utilitarianism":
Sophocles's and Mill's works prove to be connected, when it comes to the concept of maximum utility. It is clear how this concept applies to utilitarianism, as it is defined as the concept stating that the morally correct and appropriate course of action is that which allows for the most happiness or utility. While "Antigone" does not use this term directly, it can be seen as aligning with Creon's perspective on refusing Polynices's burial. It can be said that Creon's decision to refuse burial to Polynices was made on the grounds of achieving maximum utility; when making this decision, Creon felt as if it was his duty to choose whatever would be most beneficial for the majority of the state. While this came at the cost of Antigone's suffering, Creon felt as if it was his duty as a leader of the state that would best benefit the majority of its inhabitants. Going against burying Polynices would achieve this, which is why he adamantly refused against his burial.
"Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals"
Author: Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals presents an argument that suggests morality is rooted in the categorical imperative, which finds its stability in its logic. Due to our nature as rational beings, morality and the rules it calls for are things that come naturally against us; acting immorally is a logical inconsistency. Kant suggests that the only thing inherently good in and of itself is what he refers to as the “good will”, which refers to the sheer will towards acting in favor of good. Not even qualities that we typically associate with being good are inherently good (power, for example, can be used to commit great acts of good, alongside great acts of evil; therefore, it cannot be considered an inherently good quality). In order to act in accordance with the good will, one would have to act entirely independently, rather than following rules created by or orders made by another person, due to the fact that this would create an incentive of either reward or punishment. In this situation, one would be motivated by either the reward or punishment, rather than acting out of good will itself.
This work raises several key concepts discussed during class. For example, this work serves as an example of deontological ethics, which essentially stress the importance of the means over the ends. One’s intent while committing the act takes precedence over the result of the act itself (in this work specifically, Kant stresses the importance of acting out of good will more so than the results of doing so, as acting in accordance with the good will likely produces naturally good results). We should never treat people as simply a means for achieving our desired ends, Kant says, because to do so would be to refuse to acknowledge their moral worth. Kant also introduces the idea of the categorical imperative, which he defines in the following way: “I ought never to act except in such a way that I could also will that my maxim should become a universal law”. This essentially states that it is only rational to act towards others as one would prefer to be treated, not only because this is morally correct but because it is illogical to do otherwise. He provides the example of lying as a morally wrong act, and one which would lose its power if everyone participated it, as truth and lies would both lose their value in a world where nobody speaks the truth.
Connecting "Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals" and "Eichmann in Jerusalem"
Kant's work and Arendt's work can be seen as connected to each other via the concept of acting out of "good will". This term is something that Kant explicitly defines as acting in pursuit of good itself, rather than simply, blindly obeying orders from a higher-up in order to either gain reward or avoid punishment. By Kant's standards, Eichmann would be considered someone who failed to act out of the good will by choosing to blindly follow the orders of his superiors, rather than contemplating the morality behind his own actions. Additionally, in regards to Eichmann's choice to willingly work for a regime that killed millions of innocent Jewish people, Kant would have likely condemned Eichmann on the grounds that he failed to acknowledge the moral worth of his fellow human beings, treating them simply as a means to properly carry out his job; this goes against the principles of deontological ethics, which stress that the means are more important than the ends (here, the fact that Eichmann deported thousands of Jewish people is more significant than the end result of him simply following orders)..
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Connection between "Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals" and "The Ones Who Walked Away from Omelas"
These two works can be seen as being connected via the concept of deontological ethics. Kant's work strongly favors and exemplifies deontological ethics, in its emphasis on the notion that the means do not necessarily justify the ends, and in fact take precedence over them. Le Guin's work suggests that deontological ethics are more morally just than consequentialist ones, in its inherent suggestion that the torture of an innocent child, albeit used to achieve an ends of great prosperity for the city of Omelas, can never be classified as a morally just or correct thing to do, as it displaces the child's human rights and moral worth in favor of simply marking them as a stepping stone for achieving good for the masses.
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Connection between "Utilitarianism" and "Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals":
These two works can be seen as connected, in that they present two rather opposite modes of judging what is morally correct. While Kant's work exemplifies deontological ethics, which suggests that the ends are more important than the means, Mill's work exemplifies consequentialist ethics, which suggest the very opposite (that is, that the ends are more important than the means).
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"Beyond Good and Evil"
Author: Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844-1900)
Nietzsche’s work begins with an attack on various philosophers of dogmatism, arguing that their philosophies ultimately prove to be little more than mere personal confessions, consistent of complex arguments that try to substantiate their assumptions and biases. Nietzsche places this idea of dogmatism in direct contrast with the idea of what he calls the “free spirit”, who is willing to argue in favor of any hypothesis and are free from the prejudices and biases of the world, in favor of embracing it in an open-minded way. The “free spirit” is one who acts in accordance with the principles of “perspectivism”, which suggests the value of obtaining multiple perspectives surrounding an issue rather than fixating on the notion of an absolute truth. Nietzsche proceeds that the morality of the “herd” is dull and unoriginal, as well as mediocre and revolving around empty facts, choosing to blindly adhere to dogmas instead of exploring new possibilities. People who are a part of this “herd” are unwelcoming to notions that go against pre-existing dogmas, such as the notion that there is not a clear boundary between what is true and what is false. Nietzsche goes on to suggest that the “will to power” is the primary motivating force that urges people to embark on the quest to find truth. He then points out how morality is something, rather than being objective, subjective depending on which class of life one leads. He provides the example of the morality of a slave differing from that of a master, as they ascribe moral goodness to different traits (ie, the slave praises qualities of humility and asceticism, while the master lauds those of nobility and aristocracy). Ultimately, Christianity, which is the most followed Western world religion, finds its morals aligning with that of the slave; this has led to a wide-spread fixation on issues of freedom and equality.
“Beyond Good and Evil” introduces several key concepts, beginning with pointing out the issue of prejudices held by dogmatic philosophers, arguing that their philosophies are ultimately little more than personal confessions. He praises the “free spirit” and condemns the mentality of the “herd”, and asserts that “will to power” is the primary motivation for the universal pursuit of truth. He additionally introduces the dichotomy between slave and master morality, and explains how Christianity’s embrace of slave morality has led to its strong emphasis on the values of freedom and equality within the Western world. Something important that can be taken away from Nietzsche’s perspective on ethics is his emphasis on perspectivism, which paints morality and what constitutes a morally good course of action as more of a spectrum, rather than something that can be decided by weighing the means of the action over the ends, or vice versa.
Connection between "Beyond Good and Evil" and "Utilitarianism":
These two works can be seen as connected to each other, in that they present conflicting arguments in regards to what approach should be taken to determine what a morally correct course of action is. For Nietzsche, perspectivism is the correct route; this conflict's with utilitarianism's consequentialist outlook, which argues that any action, so long as it is the one producing the maximum utility, is automatically the correct course of action morally. Perspectivism argues that this type of outlook is too black in white in nature; while an outcome can be good, that does not necessarily mean that the means used to achieve it is not morally bad in itself.
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Connection between "Beyond Good and Evil" and "Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals":
These two works can be seen as connected, in that Nietzsche's push towards perspectivism directly conflicts with the values of deontological ethics that are stressed in Kant's work. A perspectivist outlook on deontological ethics would argue that they are too narrow-minded in their strong emphasis on the means through which a goal is achieved, and that they must see the bigger picture, which is that morality is not a strict dichotomy, but rather, a spectrum. The result of a morally wrong act can still produce what society would deem a morally good ends.
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Connection between "Beyond Good and Evil" and "The Ones Who Walked Away from Omelas":
These two works can be seen as being connected in relation to the concept of perspectivism. Nietzsche's work clearly places a strong emphasis on the need for perspectivism in reasoning and deciding what is morally good, depicting morality as a spectrum. In a way, Le Guin's work can also be seen as depicting perspectivism to a degree, as it showcases the extreme good (namely, the ability of Omelas to thrive and prosper) that can result from extreme bad (the torture of an innocent child), and shows to readers that deciding what is morally good and bad isn't necessarily immediately easy, as it pushes readers to contemplate the motivations behind both the people who choose to stay within Omelas and consent to the child's torture, as well as those who choose to leave the city out of disgust, and prompting readers to assess why the duties of the separate factions aligned differently.
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Connecting "Swann's Way" and "The Metamorphosis":
These two works can be connected via their examinations of what constitutes personal and social identity. In "Swann's Way", social identity is depicted as being something entirely subjective in nature, not having much to do with the individual's actual essence, but rather, how other people perceive the individual. Kafka's work takes a similar stance in regards to this definition; this can be seen through how Gregor's family perceives his social identity in an entirely different way from how Gregor perceives himself by the end of the novel, declaring him to be inhuman and a soulless monster, while Gregor perceives himself as very much human until the bitter end. In regards to personal identity, Proust's work depicts it as being something that can be made up by the objects surrounding a person and the experiences that they have. Kafka's work also tends to agree with this notion, as shown by Gregor's resistance towards his mother and sister removing his "human" objects from his room; for Gregor, these are crucial reminders of his humanity.
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Connection between "Swann's Way" and "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding":
These two works prove to be connected, in that they both pose a similar, more empirical approach to how one acquire's their personal identity. Locke's work depicts personal identity, or, the "person", as being defined by the chain of memories and experiences, obtained via things like the senses, that constitute it. Proust's work agrees with this notion, in its emphasis on the strong role that memory and perception of surrounding objects play in terms of shaping one's personal identity and sense of self. Additionally, Proust's work complicates Locke's in its introduction of involuntary memory alongside voluntary memory. Locke argues that the "person" is made up of their memories. However, Proust's work raises the question of how involuntary memory fits into this idea of a person being constituted by a chain of memories.
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Connection between "Swann's Way" and "Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory":
These works can be seen as connected, via their address of the subject of "phenomenology". Phenomenology conveys the idea that reality is consistent of objects and events perceived by the human consciousness. This is something clearly exhibited as being true in the Proust work, as the narrator begins the work by saying how he is able to identify himself after waking up because of the objects around him, which bring him back to reality and help make up his personal identity. Phenomenology is something that Butler's work directly calls for, as viewing gender from a phenomenological perspective helps combat against socially constructed, restrictive and historically oppressive gender perceptions that largely plague today's society.
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Connecting "The Souls of Black Folk" and "The Metamorphosis":
These works can be seen as connected in their analysis of how double-consciousness can impact one's own personal identity. In the Case of Du Bois's work, this is something explicitly demonstrated in his observation of how black people are forced to see themselves both through their own eyes and through the eyes of aggressive racism, which can lead them to becoming self-conscious and questioning their own worth as human beings. This is something similarly exhibited in the case of Gregor, who is forced to observe himself through his own eyes, as someone who clearly perceives himself as a human soul trapped within a bug's body, and the eyes of his family, who increasingly deems him as nothing more than a brutish monster; this is something that greatly impacts his sense of self and worth, and directly leads him to dying of grief at the story's end.
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Connection between "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding" and "The Metamorphosis":
These works prove to be connected in their address of the concept of "man" versus "person". Locke's definition of "man" strictly refers to the body, while "person" refers to the chain of experiences and memories that make up an individual. Applying these definitions to Kafka's work, it can be said that Gregor no longer inhabits the body of a man, but rather, that of a bug; however, as shown by Gregor's flow of thoughts and memories, he is still the same person, by Locke's definition.
Connection Between ""Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory" and "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding":
These two works can be seen as connected, in that they both suggest that people come into the world as "tabula rasas". While this is something that Locke explicitly defines as being true, stating that people do not come into the world with any pre-existing or innately known ideas, Butler implies this without explicitly invoking the term "tabula rasa", but supporting it in her assertion that gender is a performance and not something innate to human beings. Butler argues that gender is not innate to the human being themselves, and is actually something learned and performed over time.
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Connection between "Meditations on First Philosophy" and "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding":
Descartes's work and Locke's work can be seen as contradictory to one another, in that the former supports rationalism (in other words, relying on reason and distrusting information obtained by the senses), while the latter's supports empiricism, which states that knowledge is directly obtained through one's experiences and senses.
Connection between ""Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory" and "Meditations on First Philosophy":
These works can be seen as contradictory to each other, in that they take opposite stances when it comes to the idea of phenomenology. Butler's work strongly supports phenomenology, as she argues that basing judgements and perceptions off of experience rather than pre-existing societal stereotypes and restrictive boundaries is crucial to properly understanding gender. Descartes, however, would disagree with this idea that experiences are enough to properly judge what can be deemed correct and real or not; rather, he argues for the less empiricist and more rationalist stance of relying solely on reason.
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Connection between "The Second Sex" and ""Performative Acts and Gender Constitution: An Essay in Phenomenology and Feminist Theory":
These works can be seen as connecting to one another, in that they both demonstrate a firm stance on the idea that gender and gender roles are things not natural and innate to human beings, but rather, things that they take on over time, largely due to societal pressure for them to do so. Societal pressure to conform to restrictive and oppressive ideas of gender are harmful, and, as de Beauvoir points out, especially harmful for women, who are deemed "weaker" and "dependent" as a result.
Connecting "The Second Sex" and "An Essay Concerning Human Understanding":
Locke's and de Beauvoir's works prove similar, in that they both suggest identity as being something that is constituted by experience. For Locke, this comes in the form of an individual's "person" being made from memories and experiences; no individual is born with innate qualities or perceptions, as they are "blank slates". De Beauvoir agrees with this idea of people starting off as blank slates, saying that negative qualities typically ascribed to women, like "dependency" and "weakness" are not inherent or innate to women themselves. Instead, women should be identified by the traits and experiences they acquire over time; this would lead to more proper attributions towards the female sex.
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Connection between "But What Are You Really? The Metaphysics of Race" and "The Second Sex":
These two works can be seen as connected to one another, in that they both take rather constructivist approaches; for Mills, the approach applies to race, while for de Beauvoir, this applies to gender. Mills argues that race is something that is only ontologically and socially real, but not real in a biological sense. Similarly, de Beauvoir argues that (while sex is indeed biologically real) gender is something similarly socially constructed; this further justifies the notion that negative attributions to the female gender, such as "weakness", are not actually biologically inherent to women, but rather, the result of a misogynistic social narrative that has historically been accepted.
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Connection between "But What Are You Really? The Metaphysics of Race" and "The Souls of Black Folk":
These two works can be seen as connected when it comes to the ideas of racial constructivism and "the veil". When it comes to the "veil", it can be said that, from a racial constructivist perspective, the "veil" between white people and black people has no biological grounds and is simply rooted in racist, social ideas that call for the oppression of African-Americans. Additionally, Du Bois would likely agree with MIlls's notion of racial constructivism, as the incorrect attribution of "superior" qualities to white people which resulted in the creation of the "veil", again, has absolutely no biological grounds; it is simply a racist social narrative perpetuated to continue a vicious hierarchy of power that places white people on top.
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Connection between "Existentialism is a Humanism" and "Utilitarianism":
When it comes to the idea of intersubjectivity, these two works prove to be connected. Sartre's work places a clear emphasis on the necessity for intersubjectivity, especially when it comes to existentialism, as it places an importance on the lives of other people when it comes to carrying out our own actions. Other people are very important, as they help shape our perception of ourselves and our own existence. It is important, therefore, to maintain responsibility over our actions and treat others in a humane way. Utilitarianism, in a way, subordinates intersubjectivity in favor of simply choosing what will produce the greatest amount of utility/happiness, or pleasure over pain; this does not necessarily take into consideration a greater amount of people, or focus much on the human natures of individual. Rather, it simply focuses on the goal of achieving maximum utility,
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Connection between "Existentialism is a Humanism" and "The Souls of Black Folk": These works prove to be connected in regards to the idea of intersubjectivity. Sartre argues that intersubjectivity, or, the input from and relationships one forms with others, is extremely important when it comes to building personal identity. This is something addressed in Du Bois's work, as he discusses the "double-consciousness" that black people possess when examining their personal identities, as a result of societal racism. Their personal identities are directly impacted by their relationships with others (namely, white people), and, in this case, this leads to insecurity and discomfort with themselves.
Connection between "Get Out" and "The Souls of Black Folk":
The idea of the "veil", and how this impacts racial identity, is something that connects these two works. For Du Bois, it is clear that the metaphorical "veil" standing between white and black people is something that negatively impacts the racial identity of the African-American person, inflicting them with a sense of shame and inferiority that has no real plausible grounds. This idea is something demonstrated within "Get Out", in the character of Chris, who demonstrates apprehension towards meeting his girlfriend's white family, as he recognizes the traditional "veil" that has stood between their racial groups.
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Connection between "Get Out" and "The Metaphysics of Race":
These works can be seen as connected, in that they demonstrate similar views on racial constructivism. Mills elaborates on this term as race being not a biologically, but socially constructed idea accepted as a truth. This can be exemplified in the extreme case that "Get Out" presents, in which the brains of elderly white people are transplanted into young, black bodies. indeed, at a surface level, the elderly people inhabiting the young black bodies to appear to be black; however, we cannot really call them black, as they do not have the lived experience of an African-American person. This supports the idea that race is not something ascribed at the biological level, as the elderly white people in the black bodies, despite inhabiting those bodies, are not truly considered "black" by societal standards.
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Connection between "The Act of Killing" and "Existentialism is a Humanism":
These two works are connected when it comes to assessing the issue of the degree one is responsible for their own actions. According to the principles of existentialism, man is in possession of total freedom; with this freedom, however, comes complete responsibility. Those who participated as killers in "The Act of Killing" sometimes attempt to justify their actions by claiming that they were simply following orders, or believing in the idea that they were fighting for "freedom"; to this, Sartre would argue that they are not any less responsible for the mass killings they participated in, because, at the end of the day, they had the freedom and choice to either participate in the killings or not, and they went with the former option.
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Connection between "Eichmann in Jerusalem" and "The Act of Killing":
These two works are similar, as they both focus on subjects who participated in helping perpetuate genocide (namely, Anwar and Eichmann), but both didn't do so as evil masterminds; rather, they were rather "terrifyingly normal" people simply following the orders they were given from officials above them. These works both demonstrate the capacity of the average person to participate in mass acts of evil, as well as the need to maintain a steady moral conscience as opposed to succumbing to blind obedience.
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Connection between "Antigone" and "The Ones Who Walked Away From Omelas":
The works of Sophocles and Le Guin are connected, in that they both address issues of duty to the state and morality. Le Guin's work depicts how duty to the state can sometimes contradict with what is morally good; this is shown in her description of how the torture of an innocent child is used to uphold and allow the city of Omelas to thrive and function properly. In "Antigone", Creon would be more likely to side with those who remain in Omelas, as he believes that the well-being of the state is more important than the well-being of a single individual (this is reflected in his decision to refuse Polynices's burial, at the expense of Antigone).
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