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the outbreak of the wars 1445-1450 (how England was governed in 1445 (the…
the outbreak of the wars 1445-1450
how England was governed in 1445
the king
expected to lead the army during war
heart of the gvt.
basic concern: security of the nation + the Church
believed he had been appointed king by God so to depose him was against God's will
his powers weren't unlimited --> he couldn't change the law or raise taxes without the agreement of a parliament
he had considerable rights however: he decided when parliament sat + had resources to reward good services via patronage, decided foreign relations - whether or not to go to war or make peace
he took advice from the nobility who were expected to provide him with the necessary military support
unwise for people to criticise the king directly as K was in charge of the justice system + the penalty for treason was death so people criticised K indirectly e.g. by criticising his advisers
the nobility
advisers to the king - a formal advisory council - one council for dealing with gvt. administration & one for dealing with legal issues
when advising K on policy, he took advice from nobles around him on an informal basis - the more senior the nobleman, the more K was expected to listen to him
nobles were well positioned to know the concerns of the people + to report them to K
access to K was vital for the nobility - achieved through K's household
if K was weak + couldn't control the nobility, the legal system suffered as the nobles would act outside the law as they were aware of the lack of authority from K + were without fear of reprisals :arrow_right: local feuds could get out of control
quarrels/
feuds
at a
local
level got out of hand in the 1440s due to a lack of royal control at the heart of gvt. e.g. the
Courtenays
+ the
Bonvilles
--> (1450s) caused partly by the granting in 1441 of the same stewardship of the Duchy of Cornwall to Thomas Courtenay, Earl of Devon, + Sir William Bonville by Henry VI
in the absence of a standing army or police force, K relied on the nobility to ensure the law was enforced in the country + to provide an army from the tenants who rented land from the lord
if there was a serious outbreak of disorder/rebellion: K could send out commissions called Over + Terminer to hear + determine, punishing those found guilty
nobility + gentry = under 3% of population
income came from ownership of land
the greatest nobles were often blood relatives of K - magnates
greatest titles: duke, then marquis, earl, viscount, baron
gentry: knights, squires, gentlemen
owned less land + sometimes not landowners but made their money through trade
more land --> more income
sheriffs + justices of the peace = most important local officials
sheriffs
: responsible for bringing defendants to court, assembling juries + carrying out verdicts - often corrupt
members of the gentry responsible for operating the local courts
JPs
: mainly responsible for maintaining public order - heard criminal to do with land + contracts
more difficult cases went to the court of assizes - held twice a year in the counties + dealt with serious crimes
gentry - held quarterly sessions where minor cases were resolved + major ones brought to trial at the county court where the sheriff presided
highest court in the country: the Court of the King's Bench - had the power to overturn the decisions made in other courts
the king's household
responsible for looking after K: feeding + clothing
most senior person: Lord Chamberlain - controlled access to K - important to the nobility as access = influence
if there was a sense that some people had more access than others or some felt excluded from K's presence, problems could emerge, especially if it was felt that a particular faction was dominant --> K's task was to control factions at court + try to ensure balance
parliament
met only when K wanted them to --> not called regularly
sessions brief + focused on K's business - providing him with money
Lords: dukes, marquises, earls, viscounts, barons, archbishops, bishops, abbots, priors
Commons: representatives from the shires + towns
increasingly expected in 15th century that K should 'live of his own' (off his own means) + that the Commons should only be asked to agree to taxation in emergencies
parliament's powers were limited but it did have power in that K couldn't make or amend laws or demand taxes without parliament's consent
the problems of the nobility
Henry VI had his favourites - dictated his actions - the rest felt excluded so their resentment grew
William de la Pole
dominated gvt. 1440s - Earl + later Duke of Suffolk
not a major landowner or even of a high social ranking
made Lord Chamberlain 1447
chief adviser --> resented by York - felt he should be this
favourite of the king :arrow_right: power
as the senior male relative of Henry VI after the Duke of Gloucester, York believed he should be K's right hand man + be at the heart of the decision making process - felt deliberately snubbed by Henry VI
the major nobles
crucial to the running of the country, especially the major noble families closely related to K
Duke of Gloucester
= Henry VI's uncle & heir presumptive (until 1447)
however not Henry's closest blood relative as he had half brothers on mother's side (Catherine of France + Owen Tudor) --> Edmund, Earl of Richmond + Jasper, Earl of Pembroke (made earls by H)
died 1447 -->
Richard, Duke of York
, made heir presumptive - greatest landowner in the country - descended from Edward III
Gloucester appalled at Truce of Tours (1444) + was a constant critic of the peace policy with France - pushed for a major campaign in France but was alone - Henry inclined to peace - was was Suffolk + other nobles
1447 Gloucester arrested - accused of treason - to silence him ? - dead within days, probably from a stroke but there were rumours that Suffolk had killed him
Buckingham
&
Warwick
also major landowners + powerful - obsessed with land + the status it gave them - looked to protect their positions for themselves + their heirs
the
Beauforts
a.k.a the illegitimate Lancastrian line - descended from John of Gaunt (Edward III's son) like Henry VI - Beauforts descended from Gaunt's third wife - Henry from first - 3rd wife initially mistress --> children illegitimate but then married her - children legitimised by royal decree
Cardinal Beaufort, Bishop of Winchester - major source of finance for the campaigns during the Hundred Years War - lent the Crown over £200,000 in first half of 15th century.
Cardinal's nephew, Edmund Beaufort, had success as a commander in France 1430s so K made him
Duke of Somerset
1448
problems of law + order
abuses of power - no strong hand of a king to control the nobility - particularly in disputes over land ownership - key to prosperity of nobility + gentry
when economy wasn't doing so well + incomes decreasing, arguments over who should own which pieces of land increased (1445-50)
disputes between nobles about land increased e.g. over disputed inheritances - king should have adjudicated - an active king would have made a judgement on the case + the 2 sides would have had to accept that the judgement was final - Henry didn't fulfil this role
hiring of lawyers to investigate possible claims to land was widespread with some nobles resorting to violence in order to obtain land they felt they had claim to
it became increasingly important to have the protection of the 'right' nobleman
e.g the
Paston family
in Norfolk - a manor of theirs at Gresham was forcibly taken over by Robert Hungerford,
Lord Moleyns
, on behalf of his wife - the manor was returned but Paston wanted Lord Moleyns punished - Moleyns a key member of the Suffolk faction - Pastons were told they would not get a result --> Pastons bound to lose due to the corruption allowed by K - not fulfilling his role in this area - let others with powerful friends take advantage of situation
complaints of injustice + violence became increasingly widespread towards end of 1440s - prompted by actions of nobles e.g.:
Lord Say + William Crowmer in Kent
William Tailboys, under protection of Viscount Beaumont, in Lincolnshire
the Courtenays + Bonvilles in south-west
the Percy Earls of Northumberland + the Archbishop of York in the north (Nevilles ?)
the role of the king
should have kept the nobility in line + adjudicate when there were disputes
Henry VI allowed feuds to get out of control - actively contributed to some with his ill-judged use of patronage + granting of royal favour
nobles were allowed to cause the problems they did to an extent
the problems they caused are connected with the problems caused by Henry's advisers as they were members of the nobility
problems caused by Henry VI's advisers (Suffolk)
by 1445 clear to those in his household that he wasn't up to the task of gvt. - by 1450 people starting to suspect (not previously obvious to those not in his household)
nobility expected to advise K - but someone had to rule on H's behalf -->
Suffolk
took on the role of lead counsellor to advise K + even make gvt. policy decisions for him
contrasting views of Suffolk
Suffolk seen as personifying the 'evil counsel' about which the Cade rebels complained 1450 + as corruptly taking advantage of K's weaknesses - saw Suffolk as favouring his own men + wasting K's money on gifts of land + titles for himself + his supporters
claimed to be responsible for the disastrous peace policy with France :arrow_right: defeat + accused of having an affair w/ Queen
alternative view: seen as trying to do his best to keep gvt. going as normally as possible + act in best interests of country + fill void left by K
how valid were the criticisms of Suffolk?
medieval society: highest ranked nobles (those most closely related to K) should be closest + most important advisers
1440s closest members: Duke of Gloucester (uncle) + Duke of York (cousin) but H chose to listen to advice of Suffolk --> made him Lord Chamberlain
Suffolk made enemies of Y + Gloucester + those who supported them simply by being chosen by H as his chief adviser - many believed Suffolk was preventing G + Y from advising K
criticism of Suffolk's foreign policy - unfair - lack of success in France + subsequent losses of land --> much criticism
many of nobility looked to France to provide younger sons w/ properties - source of income --> unhappy w/ situation + looked to gvt. to provide £ for campaigns to reverse the losses - not feasible - crown finances poor + parliament reluctant to vote more taxes for war
some criticism justified:
his + his followers gained a lot in land, wealth + position
his position --> access to K + power to limit access of others, especially once made Lord Chamberlain 1447
Beaumont + Lord Say + Bishops of Salisbury + Chichester benefited (the men around him) - received a disproportionate number of royal grants
:arrow_right: Commons angered (grants) + taxes voted for war being used to pay Crown's debts to members of the household -- poverty of Crown clear as K struggled to cover costs of his + Queen's households ---> no money in war chest when truce with France ended + lack of willingness among Commons to grant more taxes --> campaign underfunded - disaster - French captured Normandy
Suffolk faction associated w/ mismanagement of royal funds + the humiliating losses in France
Suffolk untruthful + unjust
revelation that Maine to be handed over to French (part of H's marriage agreement) initially kept secret --> provoked fury in England - parliament 1445 Suffolk denied there being any secret deals in the truce
took law into his own hands - protected William Tailboys from prosecution for murder
all reflected badly on K - blamed for taking poor advice or blamed privately for making the decisions himself
parliament November 1449, shocked at losses in France, blamed Duke of Suffolk + demanded his arrest
Suffolk charged with treason + committed to Tower of London January 1450
K intervened - exiled Suffolk for 5 years - sparing him a trial but on his way into exile Suffolk's ship was intercepted near Dover by pirates + he was killed
S also blamed for financial corruption, corrupting the legal system + misgovernment + charged w/ encouraging K of France (Charles VII) to wage war on England
Henry VI's gvt. was dominated by a small clique with Suffolk at its heart + included Bishops of Salisbury + Chichester + Lord Say - by early July 1450 they had all been killed
how well did Henry VI manage his financial resources?
poor financial position - had limited resources + was heavily in debt due to financing of war with France + slump in European trade --> impacted England's ability to make money
patronage
monarch could expand his influence - gain support of nobles
nobles then distribute patronage themselves - develop their own supporters --> increase support for K
granting of titles, lands + offices as a sign of royal favour
maintain a balance between the various factions + help to keep order
H's most generous examples: the endowments of Eton 1440 + King's College 1443 Cambridge
problems
state of K's finances: (+ additional financial strain of war) - H couldn't afford to be generous -- increasingly difficult to cover costs of K's own household - had to borrow money from nobility
the Commons tried to persuade H to reverse some of his grants
1450 Act of Resumption passed to reclaim some of the gifts made by H -- not as successful as it could have been as H made exceptions, largely for members of his household
another Act of Resumption 1451 successful at regaining royal property
reasons behind his distribution of patronage: made grants out of personal generosity to those he liked instead of to strengthen his position
clerics in his household benefited: Adam Moleyns + William Ayscough given bishoprics - Chichester + Salisbury
however York + Gloucester also received grants + Buckingham elevated to duke - not just household members + Suffolk's affinity that benefited
despite attempt to be generous to all, too much patronage was given to certain individuals e.g. Suffolk --> dominance of one faction --> problems in the localities where complaints about lack of justice were heard e.g. Pastons of East Anglia - came up against men of Suffolk's faction
H showed a lack of judgement in his handling of patronage --> taken advantage of by household members as his reputation for generosity grew
issue of taxation
inherited debt from Henry V (100 Years War - cost more than England could afford)
K relied on income from Crown lands but these had decreased (partly due to over generous use of patronage) by 1450
income from customs revenues had decreased - £40,677 in 1421 to £28,100 in 1446-8
parliament increasingly reluctant to grant taxes, especially as the war was going badly + K finding it increasingly difficult to obtain loans