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Course Mind Map, Photosynthesis : # # (Energy carriers (Oxidative…

- - - - all had a vascular cambium and secondary growth
      - resembles trimerophytes in having webbing between their ultimate branches
      - contains more relictual progymnosperms
      - Aneurophyton, Protopteridiujm, Tetraxylopteris
    - - stems consist siphonostele, pith surrounded by a ring of primary xylem bundles
      - reproduction was heterosporous
      - Archaeopteris, more derived progymnosperm
      - sporangia were terminal on short branches
      - seeds were not produced
    - - micropyle permitted sperm cells to swim to the egg
      - microspores settled in the pollen chamber
      - began with retention of megaspore and then with formation of an integument in progymnosperms
- - - - simple cones with a single short unbranched axis
      - bears microsporophylls
    - - compound cones consisting of a shoot with axillary buds
      - short axis bears leaves with cone bracts
  - - - tiny papery leaves on long shoots
      - short shoots in axils
- - - - 40 species, resemble dicots
    - - only two leaves
      - grow indeterminately from basal meristems
    - - 30 species, resemble dicots
- - - - gametophyte
        
        tiny
        
        inside pollen grain and ovules
      - sporophytes
        
        large plants w/ leaves/roots
  - - - frequently mistaken to be mosses or liverworts
  - - - true parenchyma derived by 3D growth
- - - - never free living
  - - - stomata at least on the base
        
        pf sporangium
  - - - retained by gametophyte
      - typically six cells other than egg
    - - supplied by the grandparent generation
        
        sporophyte
        
        endosperm formation
- - - - Fundamental structure
        
        two groups are quite distinct
        
        seta is delicate
        
        clear, thin walled cells
        
        collapses quickly
        
        most have a foot, seta, calyptra covered sporangium
        
        Sporangium
        
        differentiate into elaters
        
        do not undergo meiosis
      - little variability exists
      - basic morphology like that of mosses
    - - leafy liverworts
        
        orders Jungermannials and Haplomitriales
        
        resembles those of moss
        
        thin leaves on a slender stem
        
        two rounded lobes w/ no midrib
        
        no conducting tissue
      - thallose liverworts
      - gametophyte initiated when
        
        establish small, temporary protonematal phase
        
        spores germinate
      - liverwort protonemata
        
        never as extensive or ramified
        
        or as long lived as those of mosses
- - - - spermatophytes
        
        cycads, conifers, angiosperms
        
        :check: both
      - nonvascular plants
        
        often called bryophytes
        
        :red_cross: vascular tissues :red_cross: seeds
        
        arose first
        
        some later member- ancestors of vascular
      - vascular cryptogams
        
        :check: vascular tissues, :red_cross: seeds
        
        clubmosses, scouring rushes, ferns
        
        made feasible
        
        evolution of truly heterotrophic tissues
        
        roots, meristems, organ primordia
        
        especially phloem
    - - adaptation to terrestrial habitats
      - vascular xylem and phloem developments
      - origin of seeds, leaves, woody growth
      - their origin from green algae
  - - - began to adapt to living on land
      - evolved to survive drying of their streams
    - - low surface to volume ratio
      - ratained water better
    - - continue active metabolism
- - - - mosses- oogamous
        
        biflagellate sperm cells + large nonmotile egg cells
        
        sperm- produced in microgametangia
        
        antheridia
      - gametangia
    - - in almost all environment
      - ubiquitous
      - occur in all parts of world
      - perennial
        
        thrive in many places within cities
        
        Mnium on soil
        
        Tortula on walls
- - - - parenchymous
        
        typically lives for less than 1 year in temperate climates
        
        act as winter annuals
- - - - synapomorphy that separates from other clades
    - - peak of plant evolution
      - as most advanced group of plants
      - or most derived
  - - - long pollen tubes
      - double fertilization
      - have closed carpels
      - with very few exceptions
        
        sieve tubes and vessels
- - - - represent both dicot and monocot leaves
  - - - did not evolve more than once
  - - - thought to be relictual
    - - has all parts
        
        sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels
      - arranged spirally
    - - all existing flower types
        
        come from generalized ancestor
- - - - two distinct lines of evolution
        
        either monocots or dicots
        
        dicot
        
        reticulate venation in the leaves
        
        flower parts in sets of five, sometimes four
        
        more diverse and have two cotyledons
        
        monocot
        
        leaves usually have parallel veins
        
        flower parts arranged in groups or multiples of three
        
        have only one cotyledon on each embryo
      - two widely used reference books
        
        Plant Systematics and A Phylogenetic Approach
    - - diverged into several clades
        
        now called basal angiosperms
- - - - Nymphaeaceae
        
        water lilies
        
        lack any wood
        
        flowers pollinated by animals
      - Austrobaileyales
        
        woody tress with bisexual flowers
        
        stamens and carpels similar to Amborella
      - Amborellaceae
        
        dioecious
        
        staminate flowers and carpellate flowers
        
        5 to 11 tepals
        
        wood contains tracheids but no vessels
  - - - shows Magnolia diverged from earlier angiosperms
      - they are uniaperturate
- - - - contains grass family Poaceae, cattails, sedges, bromeliads
      - also include wheat, barley, oats, rye, corn, rice, sugar cane
    - - contains Maranta, Calathea, canna lilies, gingers
      - large showy flowers pollinated by insects, birds, or bats
      - adjacent sepals fused to each other
    - - easily recognized by their solitary trunk
      - all have simple leaves
      - contains palms
- - - - mostly parasitic
      - sandalwood family
      - includes Viscum and Phoradendron
        
        used as Christmas decoration
    - - consist small orders such as Vitaceae
      - large two clades
        
        fabids (also called eurosids I)
        
        malvids (eurosids II)
    - - produce water-soluble pigments called betalains
      - form a nutritive tissue called perisperm
    - - the most derived large clade
      - conatins sunflower, periwinkle, petunia, and morning glory
      - can be distinguished on basis of three features
        
        have sympetalous flowers
        
        few stamens not more than the number of petal lobes
        
        stamens alternate with petals
- - - - 32 ATP
      - cristae
- - - - mutations
        
        affect fitness of the individual
        
        more or less adapted to environment
        
        if beneficial
        
        reproduce better
        
        new alleles or new genes
        
        if deleterious
        
        reproduce slower or die
- - - - human purposely change allele frequency
        
        look for desirable qualities
      - selective breeding of crops
        
        wild population and cultivated plants
      - selective breeding of animals
    - - survival of the fittest
        
        most adapt to the environment survive
      - more offsprings produced that can survive
      - different phenotypes
        
        from differential survival
      - individuals have different characteristics/ traits
      - inherit traits from parents
    - - many phenomenas
      - organisms cannot adapt
      - collision of a large meteorite
        
        large surface is destroyed
        
        all organisms are eliminated
    - - depends on many factors
      - multiple internal and external factors
    - - decrease in the frequency of the existing alleles
      - increase in new alleles
      - significance depends on population size
      - all genomes
- - - - hydrogen gas- very light
        
        formation of second atmosphere
        
        a lot of gases
- - - - speed dispersal
        
        seeds and fruits
        
        some fall close to parents
        
        some have long distance dispersal mechanism
        
        wind, flood, streams
      - pollen transfer
        
        good travel distances
        
        ragweed, grasses, conifers
        
        pollen grains
      - vegetative propagation
        
        small, mobile pieces
      - alleles spread throughout
    - - must be considered new species
  - - - Abiological Reproductive Barriers
        
        physical, non-living
        
        prevents two populations
        
        cannot interbreed
        
        allopatric or geographic speciation
      - Biological Reproductive Barriers
        
        prevents successful gene flow
        
        flower color, shape, or fragrance
        
        sympatric speciation
        
        evolutionary changes
  - - - species enter little to no competition
- - - - they build dams that are useful to environment
        
        not useful enough to them
      - beavers
    - - plays role in succession
        
        primary succession especially
        
        new created substrates
        
        animals become established
  - - - pollinators and the plants they pollinate
    - - that reduce costs and minimize benefits
- - - - organisms that live in lakes
      - communities that live in tree's branches
    - - tree lines
      - regions too wet for tree to grow
  - - - in an area
  - - - or might be predator
      - many other relations
        
        mutualistic
        
        commensalism
    - - at same time
      - same place
  - - - organisms affect one another
- - - - primary consumers
        
        herbivores
      - secondary consumers
        
        carnivores
      - primary producers
        
        plants, algae, cyanobacteria
      - harsh environment condition
        
        primary producers pop in sparse
        
        herbivores sparse
        
        very few carnivores
        
        so only three levels
        
        in better areas
        
        can be more
        
        carnivores feed on carnivores
        
        higher levels
  - - - different to recognize on food web
- - - - usually not necessary
      - impossible
  - - - tropical regions
        
        near equator
        
        benign environments
      - higher latitude
        
        more severe conditions
  - - - common observation matters
      - large areas- more diverse
        
        more variations
        
        in types of soil
        
        topography
        
        geology
        
        large population
        
        less likely to die out
    - - S= cA^z
        
        S- # of species
        
        A- area
        
        c & z- constants
        
        study individual communities
- - - - organisms consume shared resource
    - - interspecies competition
    - - one organism restricts resource
    - - light
      - minerals
      - water
  - - - prey pop, low, predator pop, low
      - vice versa
  - - - the two make up
        
        attacked by primary consumer
    - - plant is attacked by multiple predators
      - almost every herbivores attack
        
        several species of plant
    - - competition + growth slow
    - - predator's feeding rate
        
        how quickly
      - its handling time
        
        amount of time needed
      - the two make up
        
        predator's functional response
        
        dependent on prey density
    - - dN/dt = rN - aNP
      - criticized
        
        too simplistic
- - - - consists of tracheids and trachery elements that conducts watert
      - consists of fibers, hardness of wood depends upon the fibers it consist
      - derived from fusiform initials
    - - derived from ray initials
      - Ray parenchyma cell
        
        upright cells: these cells have connection with axial cells
        
        procumbent cells: these cells have no direct contact with the axial cells
- - - - conduction up and down the stem/root
      - angiosperms
      - conifers
      - fibers and non conducting parenchyma
- - - - Primary plant body
        
        in woody plants
        
        additional tissues produced in stems/roots
        
        new tissues
        
        wood and bark
        
        secondary xylem
        
        secondary phloem and cork
      - Herbs
        
        only body that develops
    - - roses, oleanders, and azaleas
      - secondary plant body
      - Sycamores, chestnuts pines, firs
        
        woody plants
  - - - low germination time
      - flight, insects, fungi, harsh environment
      - perennials
        
        need greater defense
        
        adapt to temperate climate
      - most don't reproduce for years
        
        if killed b4 reproduction
        
        waste of resources
      - expensive
        
        energy rich
        
        wood burn readily
  - - - seeds production/defensive chemicals increase
        
        must be in good, suitable sites
        
        grow into adults and reproduce
  - - - needs of leaves and roots
      - helps with overproduction and water loss
    - - produced to get sugar/water to new stems
    - - irises, bamboo, ferns
- - - - Vascular cambium: meristem that produces secondary plant body
        
        Fusiform initials: The fusiform initials are elongated tapering cells that give rise to all cells of the vertical system of the secondary phloem and xylem
        
        axial xylem
        
        axial phloem
        
        cork cambium
        
        cork: composed of phloem, cortex and epidermis. It is the outer layer of bark
        
        Phelloderm: a layer of parenchyma produced inwardly by a phellogen
        
        Ray initials: a cell in the cambium that gives rise to cells of the rays
        
        phloem rays
        
        xylem rays
- - - - consists of lateral roots or branched roots
      - most dicots have the tap root system
      - develops from embryonic root called the radicle
      - if the plant is perennial and woody, roots also go secondary growth
    - - this arises because the radicle dies during or immediately after germination; root primordia at the base of the radicle grow out and form the first stage of fibrous root system
      - they are also known as adventitious root
      - most monocots have the fibrous root system
      - this type of root system increases the absorptive and transport capacities of the root system
- - - - cortex
        
        growth occurs and destroys cortex and epidermis
        
        lateral root emerge
- - - - diploid to haploid
  - - - pollen is used to fertilize its own eggs
    - - probability
  - - - expressed
  - - - RR or rr
    - - Rr
    - - first filial generation
        
        F2 generation
  - - - different phenotypes are possible
- - - - independently or dependent
  - - - alleles move independently to the alleles of the other
      - Meiosis I + II
      - homologous
      - chromosome
        
        duplicated during S phase
  - - - linked together
        
        heterozygous fro two traits
      - usually don't undergo independent assortment
      - Recombinant Chromosomes
        
        from crossing over
- - - - Protostele
        
        solid mass of xylem with no pith
        
        two types
        
        Endarch Protostele
        
        protoxylem is located in the center
        
        differentiates while cells are small and narrow
        
        metaxylem on the outer edge of xylem mass
        
        differentiates after the cells have expanded for a few hours or days
        
        Exarch Protostele
        
        protoxylem on the edges as several groups next to the phloem
        
        metaxylem located in the center of the xylem mass
      - Siphonostele
        
        pith is present in the center
        
        occurs in the stems of ferns and seed plants
      - two types of xylem organization
  - - - sporangia opened transversely along the top edge
      - xylem was an exarch protostele
      - sporangia were lateral, not terminal
- - - - enations/microphylls of zosterophyllophytes
      - megaphylls, leaves that evolved from branch systems
      - leaves on gametophytes of nonvascular plants
  - - - roots have exarch xylem
      - have megaphylls
      - 30-kilobase inversion of plastid DNA
  - - - sporangia occur in groups of five, sporangiophore
      - Sporangiophores arranged in compact spirals, strobilus
  - - - Eusporangium initiated when surface cells undergo periclinal divisions
      - Leptosporangia initiated when single surface cell divides periclinally
- - - - transports sap. The sap is a water-based solution, but rich in sugars made by photosynthesis.
      - two types of conducting cells
        
        Sieve cells
        
        afford communication with similar adjacent cells
        
        sieve pores arrange in circumscribed areas called called the sieve plane
        
        walls contain perforations called sieve pores
        
        Sieve tube membrane
        
        have transverse end walls
        
        Sieve tube membranes with proteins necessary for signaling and ATP in order to help them transfer molecules between different parts of the plant
        
        transports organic compounds during photosynthesis
    - - conducts water and minerals
      - two types pf conducting cells
        
        tracheids
        
        long/narrow
        
        the ends are pointed
        
        reticulate
        
        vascular elements
        
        ends are usually flat
        
        reticulate
        
        short/wide
- - - - provascular tissue
        
        primary xylem
        
        primary phloem
        
        fascicular cambium
        
        secondary xylem
        
        secondary phloem
        
        cork cambium
      - protoderm
        
        epidermis
        
        cork cambium (in some plants)
        
        phelloderm
        
        cork
      - Ground meristem
        
        pith
        
        interfascicular cambium
        
        cortex
        
        cork cambium (in some parts)
- - - - completely impermeable: do not allow anything to pass
      - selectively permeable: only allows selective substances to pass
      - freely permeable membrane: allow all solutes to pass freely across the membrane
    - - movement of substances across the membrane against the concentration gradient using energy
      - the energy used to carry out this process is ATP
- - - - similar function to that of the guard cells
      - they can either accumulate or expel potassium and thus adjust the turgidity and water potential of the cell
    - - these are the molecular pumps which helps in transport of the molecules
      - the number of transfer cells depends on the surface area of the plasma membrane
    - - during night time, the guard cells are in hydraulic equilibrium because of which the water entering the cell and leaving the cell is of same rate
      - at sunrise, potassium is pumped into guard cells which increases solute concentration finally leading stomatal pore to open
  - - - in some plants, sugars are actively transported by sieve elements while in some it is transferred by polymer trap mechanism
      - the actual amount of sugar and other nutrients transported per hour by phloem is called mass transfer
      - phloem is responsible for the transport of sugar
      - sinks are sites that receives the transported phloem sap
    - - movement of water through xylem depends on the properties of water
      - liquid water is cohesive
      - water adheres firmly to soil particles
      - water is heavy and lifting it to the top of a tree needs a lot of energy
    - - water in plant is lost by transstomatal transpiration and transcuticular transpiration
      - a vessel having cavitation means the vessel can never conduct water again
      - cohesion tension hypothesis of water transport is the mostly accepted hypothesis
    - - bulk water movement through xylem is influenced primarily by water loss in the atmosphere
      - whenever the soil has adequate amount of water, water loss is actually advantageous
      - water stress: release of abscisic acid that prevents water loss
      - for healthy and turgid plants, light often controls the guard cell water relation
- - - - the changes that an ecosystem undergoes with time
- - - - clumped distribution: the distribution in which the spacing between plant is either small or large
      - random distribution: this term is used when there is no obvious, identifiable pattern to the position of the individuals
      - uniform distribution: distribution in which all the individuals are evenly spaced from their neighbors
- - - - has three layers of horizon
        
        B Horizon: it is called a zone of deposition and consists of humus and clay. It is rich in nutrients.
        
        C Horizon: it is mostly composed of parent rock and rock fragments.
        
        A Horizon: it is called zone of leaching and consists of litter and debris
- - - - Parallel: monocots have this kind of venation
      - Reticulate (net-like): eudicots have this type of venation
    - - Primary vein: vein entering the leaf
      - Secondary vein: vein branching from the primary vein
      - Lower order veins
  - - - Pinnately compound: leaflets arranged along the main or mid-vein
      - Odd pinnate: with terminal leaflet
      - Even pinnate: lacking a terminal leaflet
      - Bipinnately compound: leaves are twice divided
      - Palmately compound: leaflets radiating from the end of the petiole
      - Trifoliate: a pinnate leaf with just three leaflets
      - Pinnatifid: pinnately dissected to the central vein but the leaflets not completely separated
- - - - most ferns and flowering plants mesophyll has two layers
        
        Palisade layer
        
        many chloroplasts than spongy layer
        
        has intercellular spaces
        
        lies beneath adaxial epidermis
        
        Spongy layer
        
        cells are not tightly packed
        
        fewer chloroplasts than palisade layer
    - - Functions
        
        protection against water loss
        
        regulation of gaseous exchange
      - Types of cells in epidermis
        
        Epidermal hair cell (trichomes)
        
        cells in stomatal complex
        
        Guard cells
        
        Subsidiary cells
        
        Epidermal cell
    - - Xylem: cells that bring water and minerals from the root to the leaf
      - Phloem: cells that move sap produced by photosynthesis in the leaf out of the cell