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COURSE MIND MAP, genetics (replication of DNA # (DNA synthesizing enzymer-…

- - - - one strand is copied in one direction while the other strand is copied in the opposite
- - - - insertion sequences and transposon
      - insertion sequence contains genes that codes for splitting/cutting
      - transposon- much longer; carries genes that code for proteins not associated with transposition
- - - - example- rr
    - - example- Rr
  - - - example- Tt- T is the dominant trait while t is the recesive
- - - - little webbing between ultimate branches
  - - - large micropyle- hole that permitted sperm cells to swim to the egg
- - - - extant species
- - - - tough shrubs and bushes
      - resemble dicots
    - - contains only 2 leaves
        
        grow indeterminately from basal meristems
- - - - fusiform and secondary xylem or phloem
      - grow with a wall parallel- periclinal wall
      - vascular cells divide longitudinally by anticlinal walls
  - - - one daughter cell remains as cambium/ the other is xylem/phloem parenchyma
- - - - always contains tracheary elements
        
        helps move water through wood
    - - harder than many hardwoods
  - - - aspen, yellow birch, sugar maple
    - - red oak,honey locust
  - - - annual ring is converted to heartwood each year
      - becomes wider with age
    - - a new layer is formed each year via vascular cambium
      - less thickness
- - - - aka phellem cell
  - - - located at bases and cracks in bark
- - - - form of primary growth
- - - - gametophores- leafy stems of mosses. grows close together, tightly appressed, and forms mounds
      - most gametophytes grow from apical meristem
      - mosses stems are slender and have little tissue differentiation
        
        stems mostly contain cortex
    - - cortex is composed of cells known as hydroids that conduct water and dissolved minerals
      - species that have hydroids most likely will have leptoids that symbolize sieve cells
      - base of the stem are rhizoids which anchors the stem
    - - protonema- alga-like cells that grow from the spore during germination
    - - all mosses are oogamous- all mosses have small biflagellate sperm cells are large nonmotile egg cells
      - antheridia- sperm produced in microgametangia
      - eggs occur in megagmentangia called archegonia
  - - - capsule consists of an outer layer of sterile cells and an inner column of sterile cells
- - - - leafy liverworts
        
        resembles that of mosses
      - thallose liverworts
        
        leaves are flat and ribbon like and bilaterally symmetrical
        
        body is sometimes referred to as thallus- lacks roots, stems, and leaves
        
        contains air pores- not stomata and does not contain guard cells
- - - - plant cells do not experience lysis
    - - plants cells- protoplasts pulls from cell walldue to loss of h2o
- - - - absorbtion of K+= water potential is more negative
      - loss of K+= water potential is more positive
      - extra water and K+ causes guard cells to open
  - - - trap closes when motor cells are shrunken, trap opens when motor cells accumulate K+, water diffuses in , and motor cells become turgid
- - - - isolation barrier
    - - lipid/protein cell membranes
- - - - stomatal pores are open and lose water
- - - - feeding rate is faster when there are more prey available
    - - dN/dt = rate of change with time prey population
      - r - intrinsic rate
      - N- # of individuals of prey species
      - a- predators per capita attack rate
      - P - # of predator individuals present
  - - - the probability of encountering said prey
      - probability attacked prey will be eaten
      - decision of predator to attack prey after its been encountered
    - - produces optimal diet model- makes 4 predictions
        
        predators should prefer whichever prey holds the most energy per handling time
        
        predator would be more successful broadening its diet when high energy prey become scarce
        
        some prey items will always be eaten and some will not
        
        probability a particular plant will be eaten depends partially on the abundance of other plants that are easy to handle and have higher values
    - - exploitation competition- resource competition occurs
      - interference competition- one organism restricts another organism's access to resources even though the first may not be using it
  - - - increase of one prey species may cause the decrease in other prey species
- - - - fungitive species- one that survives by colonizing new patches
- - - - primary succession- organisms become established on newly created substrates
- - - - S= cA^z
        
        S= # species. A= area, c and z are various communities
      - alpha diversity- number of species or growth forms that accurs at a local, small site
      - beta diversity- compares difference between small sites and larger regions
      - gamma diversity- # of species within a region
- - - - have 1 cotyledon on each embryo
      - leaves have parallel veins
        
        leaves are elongate and strap
      - vascular bundles distributed throughout the stem
      - never have ordinary secondary growth/ wood
      - flowers of monocots are separated in groups/multiples of 3
    - - 2 cotyledon and reticulates venation in leaves
      - vascular bundles occur in one ring in stem
      - can be woody
      - flower parts occur in sets of 5, sometimes in sets of 4, and rarely in sets of 3
- - - - only have single germination spore
      - eudicots have 3 germination pores
- - - - arecales - the palms
      - poales - grass family and cattails
      - zingiberales - house plants such as maranta , gingers
  - - - septa- carpals fuse side by side
      - carpals do not fuse completely together and open areas to secrete nectar - septal nectaries
- - - - caryophyllales
        
        cacti
        
        contains water soluble pigments called betalains
        
        nuclear cells form a nutritive tissue called perisperm
      - santalales
        
        parasitic plants
        
        mistletoe
  - - - fabids aka eurosids 1
      - malvids aka eurosids 2
  - - - they have sympetalous flowers ( petals fused together into a tube)
      - always have a few stamens not more than the number of petal lobes
      - stamens alternate with petals
    - - lamiids aka euasterids 1
      - campanulids aka euasterids 2
- - - - Bacteria
  - - - When crop is flooded rice seeds carry out anaerobic processes that allows seeds to grow
- - - - Plants
      - Animals
- - - - Walls are elastic
    - - conducting
        
        tracheids
        
        found in all vascular plants
        
        vessel elements
      - mechanical
        
        fibers
  - - - grape plants
- - - - guard cells
      - guard cells allow stomatal pores to open
  - - - tracheids
      - vessel elements
    - - 2 types:
        
        sieve cells
        
        sieve tube members
        
        sieve element- umbrella terms
        
        the two differ in shape
  - - - primary phloem, primary xylem (larger than primary phloem)
- - - - constitutes first xylem to appear #
    - - annular or helical secondary walls
      - dead at maturity
- - - - simple leaf blade has one part where a compound leaf blade has several individual parts
      - compound leaflets can flex without tearing
- - - - contains coating of cutin and wax
  - - - open loose arenchyma- allows co2 to diffuse rapidly into leaf's interior
  - - - minor veins- releases water from xylem and loads sugars into phloem
      - midrib and lateral veins are responsible for conduction
- - - - foliage leaves are very long
- - - - when tendril touches something, the side facing the object stops growing
  - - - active traps move during capture. passive traps incapable of movement.
- - - - due to mutations, existing alleles decrease in frequency while new alleles increase
    - - example- volcanic eruptions could eliminate organisms carrying special genes.
      - affects less well adapted organisms that well adapted ones
    - - examples include selective breeding in plants
    - - 2 conditions must be met in order for natural selection to occur
        
        the populaiton must produce more offspring than can possibly grow /survive to maturity
        
        progeny must differ from each other in their types of alleles
- - - - occurs by pollen transfer, seed dispersal, vegetative propagation
        
        pollen transfer can be done via wind blowing and distributing pollen to other plants
        
        seed dispersal can occur by rafting, seeds can stick to other animals and be distributed that way
        
        if a species produces small mobile pieces that reproduce vegetatively, this can contribute to gene flow
  - - - can occur abiological and biological reproductive barriers
        
        abiological reproductive barrier- any physical, nonliving feature that prevents 2 populations from exchanging genes
        
        allopatric or geographic speciation
        
        any biological phenomenon that prevents successful gene flow
        
        mutations could change the phenotype of a flower and pollinators will not recognize it
        
        sympatric speciation- 2 groups become reproductively isolated even though they grow together
        
        prezygotic isolation mechanisms: they act before a zygote can be formed
        
        postzygotic internal isolation barriers- becomes distinct and subgroups can no longer interbreed; two subpopulations are separate species
        
        hybrid sterility- earliers postzygotic barrier
        
        2 populations occassionaly interbreed/ are artifically cross-pollinated and produce a viable seed
- - - - matabolic pathway
- - - - allowing energized pigment to enter every reaction necessary.
      - Con: Energized pigments are too larger, too energetic, and not mobile enough to move across the membrane.
      - Allow energized pigments to make one or several smaller, less energetic molecules.
        
        ADP, ATP, Substrate-level Phosphorylation
  - - - Oxidizing Agents- Compounds that take electrons away from another molecule
    - - Compounds placing electrons onto another molecule
- - - - Synthesis of ATP from ADP
- - - - Quality: refers to colors or wavelengths the light contains
      - Quantity: refers to the light intensity or brightess
      - Duration: refers to the number of hours per day that sunlight is available
- - - - pioneers- first plant to invade soil
        
        pioneers change the soil
      - formed from the breakdown of rocks
      - has 3 layers of horizons
        
        horizon- uppermost and is called zone of leaching
        
        B horizon- zone of deposition- area where materials of A horizon accumulate
        
        C horizon- composed of parent rock and rock fragments
  - - - mutualism- interaction between 2 organisms is beneficial for both
      - competition- disadvantageous to one but beneficial to the other
      - competitive exclusion- whichever species is less adapted is excluded from the ecosystem by superior competitors
      - niche- conditions in which a species is adapted to
    - - commensal relationships- one species benefits and the other is unaffected #
        
        example- birds building nests in trees- the bird benefits where the tree is unaffected
      - predation- relationship where one species benefits and the other is harmed
        
        herbivores- animals that eat plants
        
        browsing- eating twigs and leaves, etc
        
        grazing- eating herbs
      - interrelationships between plants and fungi or bacteria are harmful to the plant
        
        bacteria and fungi, etc are pathogenic
- - - - random, clumped, or uniform
        
        random distribution- no obvious, identifiable pattern to the position of individuals
        
        clumped distribution- the spacing between plants is either small or large, but rarely average
        
        uniform distributions- occur in orchards and tree plantations; all individuals are evenly spaced from their neighbors
        
        allelochemics- chemicals given off by plants to establish new zones. inhibition is allelopathy
  - - - generation time- length of time from the birth of one individual until the birth of its first offspring
      - intrinsic rate of natural increase aka biotic potential- number of offspring produced by an individual that actually live long enough to reproduce under ideal conditions
        
        carrying capacity- number of individuals in each population that can live in a particular ecosystem
        
        symbol= K
  - - - r-selected species are annuals, small shrubby perrenials
      - disturbances produces r conditions
      - few defenses against predators
      - early maturity
      - few mechanical and chemical defenses
    - - perennial
        
        bristle cone pines
      - late maturity
      - fewer, large seeds
      - many defenses
- - - - primary producers- autotrophs
      - primary consumers (secondary producers)- herbivores
      - secondary consumers- carnivores
      - decomposers- fungi, bacteria
      - energy flow + carbon flow- as plants are eaten their energy/compounds move to herbivore level -> carnivore level -> decomposers
- - - - end of branches contain sporogenous tissues
      - sporangium have to open to release spores
    - - 2 types of xylem
      - protostele
      - endarch protostele- protoxylem is the xylem that differentiates while cells are small and narrow
      - type of stele
        
        siphonstele- pith is present in the center
        
        occurs in the stem of ferns and seed plants
- - - - overtoping
      - psuedomonopodial branching
        
        single main trunk
  - - - telomes- last two twigs produced in dichotomous branching
  - - - most familiar ferns
  - - - contains horse tails or scouring rushes