Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Course Mind Map (Transport Process (membranes images (freely permeable…

- - - - the effects that solutes have on water potential
    - - water's adhesion to nondissolved structures such as cell walls, membranes and soil particles
    - - the effect that pressure has on water potential
  - - - rain,fog,dew, frost, snow,hail,humidity
    - - Ocean,lakes,marshes,ponds,rivers,snowfields, and glaciers
  - - - one continuous mass
    - - most small molecules can move easily through both the wall and the intercellular space the two together is apoplast
- - - - Different kind of Mutation
        
        Insertion (Addition of extra DNA)
        
        Point Mutation (Smallest mutation, affecting the
        least amount of DNA)
        
        Inversion (DNA tangled and breaks, and during repair, it is put in
        backward)
        
        Inversion (DNA tangled and breaks, and during repair, it is put in
        backward)
      - Effects of Mutation
        
        Depends on Nature, its Position, and its Extent
      - Causes of Mutation
        
        Certain chemicals, Ultraviolet rays, X-rays, and radiation from
        radioactive substances
        
        Mutagen is something that causes mutation
      - DNA Repair Process
        
        Xeroderma Pigmentosum: Caused by inability to repair mutations
        caused by ultraviolet ray
        
        Mutation occur in genes that code for repair enzymes causing
        serious problem
      - Somatic Mutation (Mutation that happen in cells that never
        lead to sex cells
  - - - Plant can be selfed by being crossed with another plant with
        exactly the same genotype
      - Punnett Square
    - - Genetic Symbol
        
        heterozygous
        
        homozygous
      - Only single character is analyzed and studied
    - - Dominance
      - Recessive
    - - Genotype can be revealed by a test cross
  - - - Uniparental inheritance
      - Biparental Inheritance
- - - - Part of general accimilation strategy
      - results in change in quality of the plant life
      - metabolism is occurred by fundamental change
    - - Movement can be due to change in turgor pressure
      - Not oriented in response to stimuli
      - The direction of the response is not dependent on the direction of the stimulus.
    - - cell swims towards or away from stimuli
    - - five different types of tropism
      - Positive Tropism - growth toward stimulus
      - negative tropism- growth away from stimulus
      - plagiotropism -growth at an angle
      - thigmotropism - when touch is stimulus
      - chemotropism- chemical reaction
  - - - presentation time
        
        the length of time stimulus must be there for cells to complete transduction
      - threshold
        
        the level of stimulus needed during presentation time to cause perception and transduction
  - - - cytokinesis
      - gibberellins
      - absciscic acid
      - ethylene
      - jasmonic acid
      - and others
      - auxins
- - - - understand each evolutionary lines
    - - system of giving names that reflects their relationships accurately
    - - evolutionary history of each member of the group
    - - system which closely related organisms are classified together and assigning plant names on the basis of phylogenetic relationships
  - - - set of individuals closely related by descent from a common ancestors
    - - closely related species which are grouped together
  - - - combines two names into one to give all species unique scientific names. The first part of a scientific name is called the genus. The second part of a species name is the specific epithet. Species are also organized into higher levels of classification.
    - - an organism can pass on characteristics that it has acquired through use or disuse during its lifetime to its offspring
  - - - homoplasies
        
        similar phenotypes
      - synamorphies
        
        common ancestral features
  - - - node
        
        each point at which cladogram branches
- - - - They are resilient and survive many types of disturbances and changes
        
        Body construction of green algae
        
        Nonmotile Colonies
        
        Occurs if the cells lose their flagella or never develop them
        
        Filamentous body
        
        Results if cells are held tightly by a middle lamella
        
        Motile colonies
        
        If cell adhere loosely the resulting structure is a Colony
        
        Membranous Body
        
        Results if the orientation of cell division is controlled precisely
        
        Parenchymatous body
        
        Results if cell division occurs regularly in all three planes
        
        Siphonous body
        
        Results if karyokinesis occurs without cytokinesis and giant multinucleate cells result
        
        Genera of green Algae
        
        Motile Colonial Species
        
        Filamentous Species
        
        Unicellular Species
        
        Laminar species
        
        Coenocytic species
        
        Parenchymatous species
    - - Almost exclusively marine only a few fresh water
    - - Occurs mostly in fresh water and formerly many were thought to be green algae until chlorophyll c was discovered in them.
    - - Each cell has a wall composed of two halves or frustules that fit together like a petri dish and its lid
    - - Single celled covered with numerous tiny siliceous scales that develop within special vesicles in the endoplasmic reticulum
    - - Diverse in structure and nutrition
    - - Constitute large group of especially distinct and fascinating algae
- - - - Have two cones
        
        Compound Cones: Are more complex than pollen cones each
        consisting of a shoot with axilary buds
        
        Axillary bud is microscopic, and its megasporophylls are fused
        laterally, forming an ovuliferous scale
        
        Simple cones: Pollen cones are simple cones with a single short
        unbranched axis that beard microsporophylls.
      - Have two shoots
        
        Long Shoots: Tiny papery leaves occur
        
        Short shoots: in the Axils which produce long needle leaves
- - - - Have one cotyledon
    - - Have two cotyledon
- - - - Diversity and Latitude: Far Northern have far few spices then do similarly sized areas near the equator in the Amazon rain forest, central Africa, and southeast Asia
      - Species Abundance Distribution
      - Species-Area Relationship: Relationship between area and
        species richness
  - - - Optimal Diet Model
      - Optimal Foraging Theory
    - - Fixed Quota Harvesting:
      - Zero Growth Isocline
      - Functional Response
      - Prey Dependent
      - Paradox of Enrichment
      - Maximum Sustained Yield
      - Fixed Effort Harmony
    - - Explotation Competetion
      - Interference Competetion
- - - - Glycolysis
      - Citric acid cycle
- - - - interfascicular cambium
    - - fascicular cambium
  - - - tissue in the stem of a plant that gives rise to cork on its outer surface and a layer of cells containing chlorophyll on its inner surface
      - inner cell remain cork cambium while outer becomes cork after division
      - all cells are cuboidal
      - phellogen
    - - angiosperms and roots of conifers undergoes secondary growth like stems
      - the wood produced in roots and stem are same
  - - - during a single growth period ncrement of wood
      - a concentric layer wood, shell or bone
    - - heartwood is dark while sapwood is light in color
      - main function of the heartwood is to support the tree
      - gives water and nutrients from rots to the leaves
    - - axial system
        
        consists of tracheids and trachery elements
        
        consists of fibers
        
        derived from fusiform initials
    - - found on branches
      - reaction wood in place of normal wood where cambium cell are oriented than vertically
    - - derived from ray initials
      - ray parenchyma cell
- - - - Leafy liverworts: Greatly resembles that of a moss-thin leaves on
        a slender stem; however liverworts leaves have two rounded lobes with no midrib
      - Thallose liverwort
        
        Air pores: Cells are loosely arranged as an aerenchyma with
        large air chambers that open to the exterior by means of air
        pores
        
        : Antheridiophore : Male gametophores of Marchantia which
        produce an umbrella shaped outgrowth
        
        Thallus: Less Resemblance to mosses, not leafy but rather flat
        and ribbon like or heart shaped and bilaterally symmetrical
        
        Archegoniophores: Also are stalked, but their apex is a set of
        radiating fingers that project outward and droop downward
  - - - Foot: The zygote of a moss undergoes a transverse division, and
        the basal cell, located at the bottom of the archegonium,develops into a small, bulbous tissue
      - Operculum: The apex of the sporangium which differentiate as a
        caplike lid
      - Peristome Teeth: Cell breakage is elaborate and precise,
        resulting in one or two rows of beautiful, exquisitely complex teeth
      - Seta: Between the foot and the sporangium is a narrow stalk, the
        seta
      - Capsule: Upper cell grows by cell division and expansion into a
        simple apical sporangium
      - Calyptra: which covers the apex of the sporangium in many
        species
    - - Development: Growth of the gametophore begins when a spore
        germinates and sends out a long, slender chlorophyll cell which undergoes mitosis and produces a branched system of similar
        cells; the entire network is a protonema
      - Morphology: Technically known as gametophores, many moss
        plants grow close together, tightly appressed and forming dense mounds, they are open and loose
      - Reproduction: Gametophore at some point produces
        gametangia. All mosses are oogamous; that is every species has
        small biflagellate sperm cells and large nonmotile egg cells
        
        Archegonia: Where eggs occur in Megaganetangia
        
        Antheridia: Where sperms are produced in microgametangia
- - - - Simple fruit: Fruit develops from a single ovary or the fused
        ovaries of one flower which is common fruit
      - Multiple Fruit: if the separate carpels of one gynoecium fuse
        during development, an aggregate fruit results, such as
    - - Dehiscent Fruits: Break open and release the seeds
      - Indehiscent Fruits: They do not break and does not release the
        seeds, fleshy fruits are indehiscent
  - - - Coevolution: A flower becoming adapted for visitation by a
        particular insect and the insect for efficient exploitation of the flower
      - Zygomarphic: All insects, birds, and insects are bilaterally
        symmetrical - only the longitudinal plane produces two halves that are mirror images so in many species flowers and pollinaton bilateral symmetrical
      - Actinomorphic/ Regular: Most flower which are radially
        symmetrical ; that is , any longitudinal cut through the middle produces two halves that are mirror images of each other
    - - Sepals and Petals: Considered as non essential organs
      - Dioecy (Dioeceous): A species may have individuals that
        produce only staminate flowers and others that produce only carpellate flowers
      - Perfect Flower: If a flower has both essential organs but lacks
        sepals or petals or both are still perfect flower
      - Monoecy (Monoecious): The condition of having staminate
        flowers located on the same plant as carpellate flowers
      - Imperfect Flower: If flowers lack either or both essential organs
        are incomplete as well as imperfect flowers
    - - Inferior Ovary or the other parts are epigynous
      - Superior ovary or hypogynous parts which is above the other
        flower parts
      - Partially buried ovaries are Half-inferior with perigynous flower
        parts
  - - - Microgametophytes: Microspores develop into
        microgametophytes, in all angiosperm each microgametophyte is very small and simple, consisting of at most three cells located
        within the original pollen cell wall
        
        Generative Cell: This one is small lens-shapedGenerative Cell: This one is small lens-shaped
        
        Vegetative Cell: This one is large
      - Megagametophytes: Within the ovule the surviving megaspore
        develops into a megagametophyte; technical term for megagametophyte is embryo sac
        
        Three small antipodal cells with an egg apparatus consisting of
        two synergids and an egg
        
        Seven cells are one large Central Cell with two Polar nuclei
    - - Pedicel: Flower Stalk
      - Receptacle: The very end of the axis, where the other flower
        parts are attached
      - Complete Flower: Which have all four types of floral appendages
        
        Stamens: Above the petals are stamens, known collectively as
        the androecium. They are frequently referred to as the "male part" of the flower because they produce pollen
        
        Petals: Above the sepals on the receptacle are petals, which
        together make up the corolla
        
        They are also leaf-like, being broad, flat and thin, but they differ
        from leaves in that they contain pigments other than chlorophyll,
        have fewer or no fibers, and tend to be thinner and more
        delicately constructed
        
        Sepals: The lowermost and outermost of the four floral
        appendages, they are modified leaves that surround and enclose the other flower parts as they mature
    - - Syngamy/ Fertilization: Process in which Gametes can fuse with
        other gametes which produce diploid zygote
      - Microgametophytes (Male)
        
        This gamete is formed from microspores
      - Megagametophytes (Female)
        
        This gamete is formed from megaspores
      - Alternation of Generations: Life cycle with two generationssporophyte and gametophyte
    - - Plasmogamy: Involvement of both syngamy of sperm and egg;
        fusion of the protoplasts of the gametes
      - Karyogamy: Fusion of the nuclei
      - Double fertilization: The process in which both sperm nuclei
        undergo fusions - one with the egg nucleus and the other with the polar nuclei
    - - Style: That elevates the stigma to a useful position
      - An Ovary: Where Megaspores are produced
      - Stigma: Which catches pollen grains
    - - Exocarp: Outer layer- the skin or peel
      - Mesocarp: Middle layer
      - Pericarp: The entire fruit wall, whether composed of one or two,
        or all three layers
      - Endocarp: Innermost layer, maybe tough like stones or pit of a
        cherry or it may be thin
- - - - The bacterium supplies the plant with nitrogenous compounds
        and in return the plant gives it sugar
    - - Grows as epiphytes perched on a branch of host tree
    - - roots undergo more contraction than prop roots
    - - living attached to the branches of trees in which roots spread along the surface of bark and often dangle freely in air
    - - stem of monocot become wider with more vascular bundle
    - - root of most species of seed plant and soil fung
    - - provide long term storage for carbohydrates which gather during summer photosynthesis
    - - root of parasitic plants
- - - - Factors that cause the Gene Pool to Change
        
        Accidents
        
        Mutation
        
        Multiple selection Pressures
        
        Artificial Selection
        
        Situations in which Natural Selection Does not Operate
        
        Natural Selection
        
        Factors that are not Part of Natural Selection
        
        Intension
        
        Planning
        
        Purpose
        
        Voluntary Decision Making
  - - - Chemical Present in the Atmoshphere
      - Early Metabolism
      - Time Available for the Origin of Life
      - Energy Sources
      - Oxygen
      - Chemical Produced Chemosynthetically
      - Formation of Polymers
      - Aggregation and Organization
      - Presence of Life
  - - - Vegetative Propagation
      - Pollen Transfer
      - Seed Dispersal
    - - Biological Reproductive Barriers (Any biological phenomenon
        that prevents successful gene flow)
        
        Postzygotic internal isolation barriers
        
        Hybrid Sterility (Two populations occasionally interbreed or are artificially cross pollinated and produce viable seed, but the seedgrows into a sterile plant )
        
        Hybrid Inviability (If cross-pollination occurs, alleles from one parent may code for proteins incompatible with those coded by alleles from the other, and not even a sterile hybrid can result; instead, the zygote or embryo dies early in development.
        
        Prezygotic isolation Mechanisms (Biological reproductive barriers prevent pollen from moving from one plant to another and thus neither pollination nor fertilization occurs :
      - Abiological reproductive Barriers (Any physical , nonliving feature
        that prevents two populations from exchanging genes)
      - Adaptive radiation(Special case of divergent evolution in which a species rapidly diverges into many new species over an extremely short time, just a few million years)
- - - - Biotic (Living Factors)
        
        Biotic Components of Habitat
        
        The Plant Itself (Habitat modification may be beneficial, deter
        mental, or neutral to the continued success of that species in its own habitat)
        
        Organisms Other Than Plants (Animal, fungi, and prokaryotes
        are important biotic aspects of a plant's habitat)
        
        Predation: Relationship in which one species benefits and the other are harmed
        
        Commensal Relationship: In which one species benefits and the
        other are unaffected
        
        Other Plant Species (Possibility for interaction is created; if the interaction is basically beneficial for both organisms, it is described as mutualism, but if it is disadvantageous, it is competition)
      - Abiotic (Non-living factor)
        
        Abiotic Components of the Habitat
        
        Climate (Critically important to all organisms ; has many
        components -temperature, rainfall, relative humidity, and winds)
        
        Latitude and Altitude (Regions of high altitudes on mountain tops
        are similar to those high latitude)
        
        Soil Factor (Formed by breakdown of rock. First soil that invade
        a new soil, called pioneers)
        
        Has three layers of horizon
        
        B horizon (Zone of deposition because rainwater washes
        nutrients from A horizon to this layer)
        
        A horizon (Uppermost and sometimes its
        called the zone of leaching ; consists of litter and debris)
        
        C horizon (Composed mostly of parent rock and rock fragments)
        
        Disturbance (Phenomena such as fires, landslides, snow
        avalanches, and floods)
  - - - Local Geographic Distribution
        
        Random Distribution: This is used whenever there is no obvious,
        identifiable pattern to the position of individuals)
        
        Clumped Distribution: Those in which the spacing between plants
        and is either small or large, but rarely average.
        
        Uniform Distribution: Types that occur in orchards and tree
        plantations; all individuals are evenly spaced from their neighbor
      - Boundaries of the Geographic Range (The ability of a plant
        species to spread throughout a geographic area is a result of its adaptations to the abiotic and biotic components of that area)
- - - - occur at the bases of mountains sub alpine forest at higher elevations
    - - one with cold winters and warm but not summers and relatively high precipitations in all seasons
    - - dominated by giant long lived conifers
  - - - occurs at the southern edges of the oak component of the temperate deciduous forest
    - - often referred as Praire
    - - woodland is similar to a forest except that trees are widely spaced shrub land are similar except that trees are replaced by shrubs
    - - The Biome located above the highest point at which trees survive on a mountain the timberline
    - - just south o arctic tundra is a broad band of forest
    - - rain fall is less than 25 cm/yr either cold or hot based on their winter temperature
  - - - Occurs close to the equator
  - - - has a short growing season of 3 months or less and temperature are cool averaging only about 10 degree celcius
- - - - Chlorophyll b - most numerous pigment
    - - Carotenoid - provide different colors to plants
    - - Chlorophyll a - main photosynthetic pigment
  - - - Photosystem I & II
      - Z-Scheme
      - Chloroplast
- - - - Basal Eudicots: Several hamamelid families are now believed to
        be basal eudicots rather than basal angiosperms
        
        Santalales: Small order of highly modified plants, most of which
        are parasitic.
        
        Caryophyllales: DNA- based studies have combined a large
        number of families into a group
      - Rosid Clade: Consists of many families that, taken as a whole,
        are so diverse with respect to vegetative body, flowers,
      - Asterid Clade: Most derived large clade of eudicots, which
        contains plants such as sunflower, periwinkle, petunia, and morning glory.
    - - Asparagales: This is a large clade with many families, species,
        and types of biology. By examining this clade, we get a sense of evolution as diversification
      - Dioscoreales: Has only one family, Dioscoreaceae, and is
        mentioned because it has a familiar, important food crop and unusal morphology
      - Lillales: As a large group with many highly derived families; it
        was basically defines as the "petaloid" monocots- those with large, colorful flowers
      - Commelinoid monocots: Four orders of monocots are known as
        the commelinoid monocots because they differ from the others in several unusual synapomorphies: They have unique types of
        epicuticular wax. Walls have unusual types of hemicelluloses and ultraviolet-fluorescent compounds
        
        Arecales: Contain familiar plants, the palms, in family Arecaceae.
        Leaves of palms always occur only near the shoot apex
        
        Poales: This order contains the grass family Poaceae as well as
        several other familiar groups such as cattails, bromeliads
        
        Zingiberales: This order contains some of the most familiar of all
        house plants; Maranta, Calathea, canna lilies, and gingers, as well as some that are best known in the warmer southern statesbanana and bird-of-paradise.
      - Alismatales: Contains many aquatic herbs such as Sagittaria and
        many aquarium plants such as Hydrocharis, Najas, and Hydrilla Most found in swamps and marshes, partly or entirely
        submerged
- - - - UAA , UAG, UGA
    - - AUG
  - - - During protein synthesis amino acids are carried to ribosomes by nucleic acids known as transfer RNA
    - - Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a single-stranded RNA molecule that is complementary to one of the DNA strands of a gene.
- - - - Distributes mineral and sugar
    - - Conducts water and mineral