COPD

Inflammatory mechanisms

Risk factors

Treatments

Lifestyle

Environmental

Genetic

Lung and aging

decrease in forced expiratory volume

decrease in static elastic recoil of the lung because of dilation of alveolar ducts

senile emphysema

smoking cessation

yearly influenza vaccination

homogenous airspace dilation

reduction in exposure to environmental and occupational risk factors

decrease in chest wall compliance

decline in strength of respiratory muscles

bronchodilators

respiratory rehabilitation

glutathione S-transferase

maternal smoking

glucocorticosteroids

maternal exposure to air pollution

indoor and outdoor air pollution

biomass exposure

obesity

antibiotic use

smoking

polymorphisms that increase the risk of COPD

Serine protease inhibitor

mutations in this gene promote emphysema

Vitamin D binding protein

prevalance is higher in COPD patients

Hallmarks

Mitochondrial dysfunction

  • lower mitochondrial DNA copy numbers

Genomic instability

  • induced by smoking

Cellular senescence

  • induced by smoking

Epigenetic alterations

neutrophils

eosinophilic inflammation

macrophages

inflammatory proteins

ROS and NO generation

mucus hypersecretion

hyperplasia