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Botany Course Mind Map (Community Ecology # # (Species Interaction in a…

- - - - glucose-6-phosphate
        
        fructose 6 phosphate
        
        phosphorylation
        
        dihydroxyacetone phosphate
        
        3- phosphoglyceraldehyde
- - - - carbon dioxide and water are abundant and cheap
      - combination of carbon dioxide with water to form carbohydrate
      - storage of high concentration of carbohydrate
      - water and carbon dioxide diffuse into plants automatically from soil,air or water
      - deposits a large amount of energy into them
  - - - Light hits the pigment in the membrane of a thylakoid, splitting the H2O into O2
        
        Sunlight hits the second pigment molecule allowing the enzymes to convert ADP to ATP and NADP+ gets converted to NADPH
        
        The electrons move down to enzymes
        
        The ATP and NADPH is used by the calvin cycle as a power source for converting carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into simple sugar glucose.
        
        The ATP and NADPH is used by the calvin cycle as a power source for converting carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into simple sugar glucose.
        
        The calvin cycle converts 3CO2 molecules from the atmosphere to glucose
    - - Photosystem 1(PS1)
        P700
      - Photosystem 2 (PS2) P680
  - - - Substrate level phosphorylation
      - Oxidative Phosphorylation
    - - Cytochromes
      - Plastoquinones
      - Plastocyanin
  - - - incapable of gathering energy directly from light and instead take in organic molecules and respire them.
      - animals
      - parasitic plants
      - fungi
      - nonphotosynthetic bacteria
      - root, wood and flower
    - - gathers energy directly from light and use it to assimilate small inorganic molecules into their own tissues.
      - bacteria
      - cyanobacteria
      - greenplants
      - leaves and stem
- - - - cambiam or cork cambiam
      - arranged parallel to the side of the organ
      - responsible for increase in diameter of the organ
    - - found within the root tips and the tip of new shoots and leaves
      - differentiate into different cell types.
    - - rapid growth and regrowth of monocots
      - intercalary meristems at the node of bamboo allows rapid stem elongation
      - intercalary meristem at the base of grasses allows damaged leaves to rapidly grow.
  - - - Transports product of photosynthesis
      - upward movement
      - dead at maturity
      - consists of conducting cells
    - - transports H2O dissolved nutrients
      - made of long hollow tubes
      - formed from tracheae or vessel elements
      - upward movement of nutrients
      - living at maturity
  - - - tissue composed of spherical shaped cells
      - living cells
      - thin primary cell wall
      - can be compact or have spaces
      - photosynthesis, storage or transport
    - - optic lignified secondary walls
      - cell wall consists of cellulose
      - dead cells
      - found usually in xylem tissue
      - main structural support to a plant
    - - composed of elongated cells with irregular walls
      - living cells
      - structural support found beneath the epidermis of stem
      - consists of chlorophyll as chlorenchyma
- - - - primary vein- vein that enters the leaf
      - secondary vein: branches from the secondary vein
      - low order veins-
  - - - cuneate:wedge shaped
      - obtuse:tapers at the rounded point
      - turning: froms a notch
    - - accuminate: long narrow point tapering
      - obtuse: tapering at a rounded point
      - acute: acute angle ending
  - - - Upper epidermis: secretes protective layer cuticle
      - Lower epidermis: contains stomata
    - - Palisade tissue: preparation of food
      - spongy tissue:preparation and storage of food
    - - xylem: transport of water and minerals
      - phloem: transport of food
- - - - first year leaves die during the winter
        
        the plant produces only as many leaves it had during the first year
  - - - its conducting capacity is set
        
        needs of the leaves and roots are fulfilled
        
        water loss is prevented in a way that it produces less leaves as compare to the Xylems conducting capacity.
  - - - wide tracheids in conifers
      - high proportions of wide vessels
      - first formed wood
    - - lower proportions of vessels compared to early wood
      - thick cuticle and less transpiration
      - summer wood
    - - age factor
      - early wood
      - late wood
  - - - wood
        
        developed from cells which are interior to vascular cambium
        
        all primary xylem cells present
        
        contains fibres, tracheids,vessel elements, sclereids and parenchyma
    - - it is also formed from vascular cambium
      - It contains companion cells and sieve cells
- - - - walls are made of lignin
      - Xylem stretches from roots to leaves
      - consists of vessels which contains pits
    - - mechanical support to the plant
      - transportation of water and minerals from roots to other parts
    - - has hollow lumen walls for easy flow of water
      - has lignified walls
      - dead structure with no protoplasm
  - - - sieve cells
      - companion cells
    - - transports food from leaves to rest parts of the plants
    - - holes present in the sieve cells allow food flow through sieve cells
  - - - lower water potential in the cell sap of the root hairs forces water to enter by osmosis
        
        water moves from root hair to inner cells
        
        process continues till the water reaches the xylem vessels and get distributed throughout the plant
  - - - Air
        
        humid air -> rate of transpiration
      - Temperature
        
        higher temperature -<rate of transpiration
      - Light
        
        presence of light -<increases the stomata -<rate of transpiration
  - - - Reduction of transpiration rate
        
        Reduction of water loss
    - - photosynthesis rate reduction
        
        water starts acting as a limiting factor - closed stomata reducing the level of CO2 to enter the leaf
- - - - Gene mutation occurs
        
        alleles
        
        Genotype
        
        allele that a single individual has
        
        Phenotype
        
        expression of alleles in individual's characteristics
  - - - chromosomes pair (synapse) during metaphase I
        
        paternal chromosome is separated from the maternal chromosome during anaphase I
        
        sister chromatids separate after metaphase II
        
        daughter nucleus receives identical alleles
  - - - establish the genotypes of the two parents
        
        determine what types of gametes are produced and in what proportions
        
        fill in the squares with the genotypes
        
        the phenotypes in each square can be determined
        
        https://youtu.be/prkHKjfUmMs
  - - - the genes on different chromosomes produce all types of gamete equally frequently.
- - - - Mutation
      - Accidents
      - Artificial Selection
        
        artificial change in the allele frequency of a gene pool
        
        Example: selective breeding of crop plants and domestic animals
      - Natural Selection
        
        survival of the fittest
        
        most significant factor causing gene pool change
        
        Two conditions: 1. offspring able to grow in the habitat,
        
        progeny must differ from one another
        
        Natural Selection
  - - - one species changing to new species
      - gene flow
        
        pollen transfer,
        
        seed dispersal
        
        Vegetaive propagation
    - - either change to new species or remain original or change to a third species
      - reproductively isolated
        
        Abiological Reproductive barrier. eg: mountain ranges species
        
        Biological Reproductive Barrier. Eg: monkey flower
        
        Adaptive Radiation: colonies of Hawaii
      - Genetic drift: rapid change in gene pool
  - - - p2+2pq+q2=1
      - p2= genotypic frequency of RR
      - 2pq= genotypic frequency of Rr
      - q2= genotypic frequency of rr
  - - - Chemicals produced Chemosynthetically
      - Polymers Formation
      - Aggregation and Organization
      - Early metabolism
      - The presence of Life
      - Oxygen
- - - - Climate
        
        Impacts:
        
        Environment at the time of deision making
        
        response mechanism
        
        breeding or flowering date
        
        environment at the time of selection
        
        selection mechanism
        
        fitness
      - Soil Factor
        
        rain, wind, temperature, altitude, soil, pollution, nutrients, pH, types of soil, and sunlight
      - Latitude and Altitude
        
        Greater Carboxylation efficiency at high altitudes.
        
        Discrimination increases towards the pole. Latitudinally,
        decrease in discrimination.
        
        polar low-altitude plants have δ13C values half way between humid tropical lowland and tropical alpine plants.
        
        both temperature and atmospheric pressure are responsible for the altitudinal trends in 13C discrimination.
        
        Temperature effects may partly be related to increased leaf thickness (within the same leaf type) in cold environments.
        
        oxygen partial pressure that is responsible for the pressure related change in discrimination.
        
        Correlations with dry matter partitioning, mesophyll thickness and nitrogen content are also present.
      - Disturbance
        
        caused by non living factors
        
        natural and integral part of forest ecosystem
        
        cyclones, storms, landslides, insect and disease outbreaks, and heat waves and droughts
    - - The plant itself
      - other plant species
      - Organism other than plants
- - - - Alpha Diversity: number of species or growth forms that occur at a local, small site.
      - Beta Diversity: Comparision of differences between several small sites within a larger region.
      - Gamma Diversity :number of species within a region.
  - - - two organisms in which one benefits and the other derives neither benefit nor harm.
        
        Example: Nurse plants are larger plants that offer protection to seedlings from the weather and herbivores, giving them an opportunity to grow
    - - two or more species where each species has a net benefit.
        
        Example: the plants cannot make seeds without the yucca moth, and the moth larvae only reach maturity if they eat developing yucca seeds
    - - two organisms of unlike species in which one of them acts as predator that captures and feeds on the other organism that serves as the prey.
        
        the Venus fly trap and the pitcher plant, consume insects.
    - - both the organisms or species are harmed.
        
        Example:A bald eagle is flying over a field, and sees a smaller hawk. The hawk has a fresh kill, but the bald eagle swoops in, threatens the hawk, and steals it
  - - - dN/dt=rate of change with time of the prey population; r=intrinsic rate of increase for prey; N=number of prey individuals; a=predator’s per capita attack rate; P= number of predator individuals
    - - dP/dt= rate of change with time of predator population; f=constant, indicating predator’s efficiency at converting the prey it has eaten into new predators; q=predator’s per capita mortality rate
  - - - Feedback mechanism
        
        As prey number declines, there is not enough food to sustain a high predator population and thus predator death rate exceeds that of birth rate
        
        As predator populations increase, prey death rate exceeds birth rate, resulting in prey decline
        
        As more food for predators is available, predator survival and reproductive success increases, resulting in predator population growth following that of their prey
        
        At low prey and predator population sizes, prey increase exponentially
- - - - Mosses:
        
        12,000 species of small nonvascular spore-bearing land plants.
        
        found in moist shady locations.
        
        The stemlike and leaflike structures of moss plants constitute the gametophytic (sexual) generation.
        
        The sporophytic (asexual) generation develops from the gametophyte and usually consists of a raised stalk, or seta, which terminates in the sporangium.
        
        Mosses reproduce by branching and fragmentation, by regeneration from tiny pieces of leaves or stems, and by the production of spores.
      - Liverworts:
        
        9,000 species of small nonvascular spore-producing plants.
        
        Sexual (gametophyte) and asexual (sporophyte) generations characterize a liverwort life cycle.
        
        The gametophyte generation consists of the haploid thallus and is the dominant generation; it develops from a germinating spore.
        
        The sporophyte generation develops from this diploid embryo and forms a sporangium at its apex. Spores are released when the sporangium ruptures, marking the start of a new gametophytic generation.
        
        liverworts can reproduce asexually by means of gemmae.
      - Hornworts: - division Anthocerotophyta - 300 species of small nonvascular plants.
        
        usually grow on damp soils or on rocks in tropical and warm temperate regions.
        
        hornworts have an evolutionary history distinct from both mosses and liverworts.
        
        The plants’ gametophytes (sexual generation) are typically flattened, irregularly lobulated (thallose) structures that are usually less than 2 cm (0.8–1.6 inches) in diameter.
        
        The sporophyte, or asexual generation, forms a tapered cylinder. The sporophyte is dependent on the attached gametophyte for nutrients and water.
- - - - outermost floral appandage
      - modified leaves surrounding flowering plants
      - protects flower buds during development
      - all sepals together referred as calyx
    - - located above the sepals on the receptacle
      - contain pigments
      - attract pollinators.
      - Absent in wind-pollinated species
      - corolla
    - - occur above the petals.
        
        collectively called the androecium
        
        Two parts: anther and its supporting filament
        
        Diploid anther cells (microsporocytes) undergo meiosis to produce four microspores.
        
        Microspores form a resistant cell wall and become pollen
    - - Carpels, collectively, are the gynoecium
      - Stigma catches pollen grains.
      - Style elevates the stigma.
      - Ovary where megaspores are produced.
      - Within the ovary are placentae bearing small structures called ovules
  - - - anemophily
      - hydrophily
    - - melittophily
      - psychophily
      - phalaenophily
      - myophily, sapromyophily
      - ornithophily
      - chiropterophily
      - cantharophily
  - - - grow to a compact height
    - - grow and produce fruit until killed by frost
  - - - compatibility barriers
        
        pollen growth prevention
    - - Animal Pollinated flower
        
        Zygomorphic
        
        Coevolution #
        
        Regular
      - Wind Pollinated flowers
        
        distinct set of modification
        
        aided by growth pattern
- - - - multicellular sporophyte
      - multicellular gametophyte
    - - Transformational Hypothesis
  - - - Lycophytes have lateral sporangia and exarch prosteles.
    - - microphylls present,
        
        true roots evolved,
        
        vascular cambium in many extinct
    - - cones or strobili,
        
        necessary precondition for evolution of seeds, -
        
        Megagametophyte
        
        Eggs(n)
        
        Zygote (2n)
        
        Embryo (2n)
        
        Sporophyte (2n)
        
        1 more item...
        
        Microgametophyte
        
        sperm(n)
- - - - -primary root that persists throughout the life of a plant,
        -occurs in dicots
        -develops from the radicle
    - - -root that develops from any parts of the plant except the radicle or its derivatives
        -occurs in monocots
        -does not grow deep into the soil.
  - - - radicle dies during or immediately after germination
        
        plants ages, more root primordia are initiated in the stem tissue
        
        known as adventitious roots
    - - develops from the embryonic root called the radicle, present in the seed
        
        becomes the largest root along with lateral roots
        
        lateral roots may produce some more lateral roots
        
        lateral roots can become swollen as in sweet potatoes
- - - - 1,3diphosphoglycerate
        
        3-phosphoglyceraldehyde
        
        NADP
        
        NAD+
        
        Substrate level Phosphorylation
- - - - FMN
      - Ubiquinone
      - Cytochrome Oxidase
    - - malate aspertate shuttle
      - series of chemical reactions carries (shuttles) reducing power across the membrane
      - conversion of oxaloacetate to malate
      - phosphorylation of three ADP's to three ATP's
    - - pyruvate transported from cytosol
      - oxidized and decarboxylated
      - electrons transferred to NAD+
      - CO2 and NADH produced
      - Acetyl COA
      - citrate
      - cis-aconitate
      - isocitrate
      - succinyl CoA
      - FAD
      - malate