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Course mindmap, Transport process. (water potential. (it can be decreased…

- - - - permits the passage of certain types of particles and inhibit the passage of others.
        
        all lipid and protein cell membrane.
    - - allow everything to pass through it.
    - - a barrier that allow nothing to pass through.
  - - - Active transport process.
        
        molecular pump binds to molecular ATP
        
        ATP splits to ADP.
        
        energy is transfererd to the pump.
        
        forces it to change.
        
        carries molecules across membrane and release it.
- - - - molecules binding to each other
    - - binding to other susbtance
  - - - cavitation
- - - - plant that give rise to monophyletic group of woody plants #
    - - seeds originated establishing seed plants. #
  - - - example; pine cones.
  - - - carples
- - - - abundant wood with secondary phloem
      - reproduction
        
        heterosporous
      - more derived progymnosperm
      - "fronds" were planted branch systems
      - ring of primary xylem bundles
      - leaflets were serially arranged simple leaves
  - - - Chauleria
      - from Middle Devonian Period
    - - some fossils help us understand the early stages
      - hole in integument
      - permitted sperm cells to swim to the egg
    - - holding area for microspores
        
        evolved into pollen grains
    - - evolved into ovules with integuments
- - - - short shoots
      - long shoots
    - - endodermis
      - transfusion tissue
    - - pollen cones
        
        simple
      - seed cones
        
        compound
    - - its megasporophylls are fused to form ovuliferous scale
- - - - about 40 species
      - touch shrubs and brushes
    - - leaves similar to those of dicots
      - 30 species
      - mostly vines or small shrubs
    - - short, wide stem
      - exists only in deserts of South Africa or in cultivation
      - only species in the genus
      - only two leaves
- - - - :<3:Primary plant body
        
        wood and bark #
        
        Secondary phloem and cork.
        
        Secondary xylem
        
        additional tissues produced in stems and roots
      - herbs only those that develops.
    - - Roses,oleanders and azaleas
      - secondary body plant
      - woody plants.
  - - - irises bamboo fern
      - Conducting capacity
        
        helps with overproduction and water loss
      - adventitious roots
        
        produced to get sugar, water
    - - minerals/water,upward cards downard support increases
    - - :red_cross:must grow into adults and reproduce
  - - - expensive energy rich
      - low germination time.
      - fight insect, fungi harsh envrionment.
      - Most donot reproduce for a months
- - - - located b/w metaxylem and metaphloem
        
        become conducting tissues
  - - - to periclinal wall
      - continue to fusiform initials
  - - - in gymnosperm albuminous cells
      - storage parenchyma
      - produce short cells
  - - - stored cambium
    - - non stored cambium.
- - - - develop into secondary xtylem
        
        known as wood.
    - - tracheiods :lock:
      - vessel elements :<3:
      - fibers
      - parenchyma :warning:
    - - contains tracheary elements
    - - of angiosprems and eudicots
      - strong and tough
    - - have few or no fibers
      - softer consistency
      - much harder than hardwoods
  - - - summer wood
      - lower portion of vessels
    - - 1 years growth
      - diffuse porous
  - - - dark wood
    - - lighter, moisture outer region
  - - - tension wood.
- - - - vascular cambium.
      - innercoat cork cambium
  - - - region for aerenchymatous cork.
  - - - epidermis
      - cortex
      - primary phloem
      - secondary phloem.
- - - - same star shape as primary xylem.
- - - - primary tissue consisting of vascular bundles
      - trunks donot taper at the tips
    - - inscrase in width and addition of adventitious roots in palms
      - form of primary growth.
  - - - joshua tree
      - secondary vascular bundle
        
        columns of parenchyma cells go under cellular division
        
        contain xylem and phelom
    - - that differ from the common type.
    - - amount of storage parenchyma increses.
    - - stems grows in 2 different direction.
      - remains thin, flat woody ribbon.
      - as the bauhisnia stem become wider.
        
        conducting capacity increases and remains flexible.
    - - types of secondary phloem located between two bands of xylem.
- - - - powerful tool for genetic analysis
      - insertion sequence and transpons.
    - - many man made
      - UV light x-rays, radiation from radioactive substances
      - certain chemicals.
  - - - may code for protein with bad active site.
- - - - diploid to haploid
  - - - pollen is used to fertilize its own eggs.
    - - probability
  - - - expressed.
  - - - certain mutations will likely occur
      - dominance is complex
        
        different phenotyes are possible.
  - - - first filial generation
        
        F2 generation.
    - - RR or rr
    - - Rr
- - - - Recombinant chrmosome
        
        from crossing over .
      - linked together.
        
        heterozygous for 2 traits.
      - usually don't undergo independent assortment.
  - - - independently or dependent.
  - - - duplicated during S phase. #
  - - - prophse I
      - farther apart genes are the greater chance.
      - synaptonemal complex is formed.
- - - - forms replicon.
      - free nucleotides diffuse/pair with bases.
        
        ribonucletides
        
        primer DNA acts as substrate
        
        semiconservation replication.
        
        for DNA polymerase.
- - - - result of complex metabolic process.
      - Eg: R in flower trait.
        
        red color
- - - - DNA nucleotides
        
        guides the construction of RNA /proteins
        
        alleles
        
        Genotypes
        
        types of alleles
        
        Phenotypes #
        
        expression of alleles
        
        arises by mutation and new sequence is new allele
      - Identical nucleotides
        
        identical physically.
- - - - sometimes tetraploid
        
        don't undergo
        
        S phase.
    - - Change in chromosome number.
      - 2 chromatids may remain together.
      - Down syndrome.
    - - alleles of both parent
      - all genes in nucleus undergo this.
    - - maternal inheriance
      - megagamete.
    - - pollen parent ? ovule parent.
    - - almost undectectable
        
        if detected, eliminated.
      - respiration DNA replication cellulose synthesis.
- - - - identical copies of the parental genes
    - - genetically different
      - sexual reproduction #
        
        sex cells of 1 plant
        
        combines w/ those of other
        
        may be one or more
        
        sex cells
        
        many can be produced by a single plant
    - - produced by sexual reproduction
- - - - form on roots
      - and then grow into plants
      - even while the parent plant is still alive
- - - - or sporophyte generation
    - - have in flowers of angiosperms
      - results: HAPLOID SPORES
      - cannot undergo syngamy
        
        each undergo mitosis
    - - plants that produces gametes
    - - sperm cells and large eggs.
  - - - through the style toward ovule
    - - fusion of protoplasts of gametes
    - - fusion of the nuclei
  - - - sepals, petals, stamens. carpels
    - - very end is receptable
    - - thickest, toughest, waxiest
      - lowermost/outermost
      - modified leaves
    - - made up of corolla
      - leaf-like
    - - with in the ovule
- - - - by pollen of different individual
    - - pollination by same flower
      - or by another flower on the same plant
    - - random mutation
  - - - sepals/petals
    - - produce critically important spores
    - - have individuals that produce only staminate flowers and others that produce only carpellate flowers
      - extreme adaptation that ensures cross pollination # #
    - - having staminate flowers located on the same plant as carpellate flowers
  - - - must be protected from pollinators
      - some species
        
        primordia crowd together and bases of petals, stamens, sepals fuse
        
        primordia initiated @ receptacle apex
      - adaptations that maximize separation are long styles and stamen filaments
        
        burry ovaries deep w/in flower
      - partially buried ovaries
        
        hal-inferior
        
        perigynous flower parts
  - - - huge numbers of pollen grains must be produced
      - adaptive modifications
      - attracting pollinators unneccesary
        
        save energy
        
        mutations prevent petal advantageous
        
        sepals absent, ovaries need no protection
- - - - collective visual signal to pollinators
- - - - aggregate fruits
        
        carpels of flower not fused
        
        rasberry
      - multiple fruit
        
        all fruits of an inflorescence grow together during maturation
- - - - fisherman/hunters allowed harvest particular amount
      - no matter how long it takes
      - could cause great harm
- - - - impossible/unnecessary to catalog every microbe
      - larger areas more diverse than smaller
  - - - larger areas more diverse than smaller
        
        alpha diversity-local small site
        
        beta diversity- differences
        
        b/t several small sites in a larger region
        
        gamma diversity-number of species in region
    - - between area and species
      - S=cAᶻ
      - A= area
      - S= no. of species.
      - c and z are constant
    - - obtained by plotting the no of species
  - - - tropical regions have benign environments
        
        warm
        
        milllion years to adapt
        
        abuduant rainfall
      - high altitude severe condition
        
        freezing
        
        water stress
        
        millions years to adapt
- - - - herbivorous
        
        can/will eat variety of plants
      - onmivorous
        
        eat both plants and animals
    - - probability that particular prey is encountered
      - decision to attack individual
      - probability that attacked prey successfully eaten
    - - predators prefer prey that yields most energy per handling time
      - if high-yield prey is scarce then, predator more successful by broadening its diet
      - less profitable prey ignored if more profitable prey is available
      - some prey always eaten/ others never eaten even if encountered
  - - - exploitation competition
        
        organisms consume shared resource
        
        less available for other organisms
      - interference competition
        
        one organism restricts access to resource from another
        
        example: leaves blocking light to another organism
      - invasive species
        
        species increases from low to high population density
        
        even with resource competitors present
        
        resource=substance/factors that increase growth rates
- - - - organisms establishing on new substrates
- - - - migration
      - gene flow b/t patches
    - - preserving endangered species
      - metapopulation crucial
  - - - before it dies out in older patches
- - - - three sepals, three petals, three stamens, and three carpels.
    - - more diverse and include greater number of families , genera and spoecies.
- - - - about 3,500 species, contains the palms
    - - contains grass families
        
        wind pollinated
      - has about 8,000 species
    - - contains familiar house plants
- - - - unique nature of sieve tube plastids
      - share many derived characters
      - produce betalains
      - have perisperm
    - - important economically
      - consist of several small and two large groups
      - two large clades
      - fabids
        
        eurosids I
    - - createst number of species
      - easily distinguishable
      - very few stamens
    - - sunflower
      - morning glory
    - - very potent chemicals
      - deter predators
- - - - perennial
      - occuring in all parts of the world
      - in almost every environment
  - - - innermost cortex cells
        
        conduct water/ dissolved minerals
        
        elongated cells
        
        no cyctoplasm
        
        end walls partially digested
    - - cells that resemble sieve cells
        
        elongate
        
        lack nuclei
        
        retain cytoplasm
    - - along exterior of stems
        
        leaves are small
        
        act as capillary channels
        
        rhizoids located base of stem
        
        trichome-like structure
        
        small/ multicellular
        
        penetrate substrate surface
        
        do not absorb water/ minerals
        
        lack chloroplasts
        
        reddish walls
        
        form narrow spaces
    - - begins when a spore germinates
      - sends out long, slender chlorophyllous cell
      - produces branched system of similar cells
        
        resembles filamentous green alga
        
        distinguished by numerous small chloroplasts
        
        entire network
      - protonema
        
        undergoes mitosis
    - - gametophore
        
        produces gametangia
      - all mosses oogamous
      - small biflagellate sperm cells
        
        produced in microgametangia
        
        called antheridia
        
        short stalk
        
        outer layer of sterile cells
      - large nonmotile egg cells
        
        occur in megagametangia
        
        called archegonia
        
        shaped like vase w/ long neck
        
        single egg located at the base
        
        neck hollow at maturity
      - The Sporophyte Generation
        
        zygote of moss
        
        undergoes a transverse division
        
        basal cell develops into
        
        small bulbous tissue called the foot
        
        interface w/ gametophore
        
        upper cell grows by cell division
        
        absorbs sugars, minerals, and water from gametophore
        
        upper cell grows by cell division
        
        expansion into a simple apical sporangium
        
        called the capsule
        
        operculum
        
        1 more item...
        
        seta
        
        1 more item...
        
        peristome teeth
        
        one or two rows
        
        respond to humidity
        
        traps spores
        
        1 more item...
    - - two critical factors:
        
        small size
        
        lack of conducting tissues
      - several mechanisms compensate
      - for inability of mosses to retain water
      - grow in permanently moist microhabitats
      - tolerant of desiccation
      - desiccated mosses resistant to high/ low temperature
      - and intense ultraviolet (UV) light
- - - - no seeds and vascular tissues.
      - E.g mosses, liverworts, hornworts
    - - vascular tissue is present and seeds are absent.
      - Eg. clubmosses, scouring rushes and ferns.
    - - eg. cycads, conifers and angiosperms.
      - both vascular tissues and seeds are present.
- - - - hetermorphic generations
        
        sportophyte & gametophyte differ structurally
    - - sporangia
      - gametangia
- - - - liverworts
    - - mosses
    - - hornworts
- - - - leafy liverworts
        
        gametophore resembles moss
        
        no midrib
        
        have 2 rounded lobes.
      - thallose liverworts
        
        or heart shaped/ bilaterally symmetrical
        
        flat and ribbon like
        
        air pores
        
        no guard cells
        
        no stomata.
        
        cannot be closed
    - - bisexual
      - or unisexual depending on species
      - antheridiophore
        
        umbrella-shaped outgrowth
      - archegoniophores
        
        apex of radiating fingers
    - - little variability exists
      - basic morphology like that of mosses
      - most liverwort sporophytes:
        
        foot
        
        seta #
        
        clear thin walls
        
        collapse quickly
        
        extremely delicate
        
        calyptra-covered sporangium
        
        elators
        
        spring-shaped walls
        
        uncoil pushing spores out
        
        single elongate cells
- - - - succulent but brittle
        
        winter annuals
        
        live less than 1 year
        
        after fertilization divides longitudinally
  - - - meristem just above the foot
        
        produces new sporangium tissues
- - - - if carbondioxide is reduced photosynthesis is reduced.
  - - - co2 produced by respiration can be reused photosynthetically but in minor amount.
        
        c4 metabolism ad crassiulacean acid metabolism (CAM) help to conserve water.
        
        C4 metabolism is an adjunct to c3 metabolismnot a replacement. PEP carboxylase, which acts as the intital carboxylating enzyme, has a great affinty for carbondioxide.
        
        Crassulacean acid metabolism is similarto C4 metabolism, except that it accumulates and stores carbondioxideat night whilestomata are open and releases it during the day while stomataare closed.
- - - - involves endergonic reactions driven by ATP and new bonding filled by electronscarried to reaction by reducing NADPH
        
        They create the intermediates ATP and NADPH by a process called the light depedent reactions
        
        ATP and NADPH interact with carbondioxide and Finally produce carbohydrates
- - - - Photosynthetic reactions produce ATP.
        
        ATP can enter reaction for which energy is needed.
        
        In those that it does not enter, often relatives of ATP, are involved most frequent is guanosine triphosphate which also carrieshigh-energy phosphate bonds.
        
        ATP is converted to ADP and there is 3 method where ADP can be phosphorylated to ATP.
        
        Photophosohorylation involves light energy
        
        Substrate level phosphorylation happens in cytosol. reaction doesnt involve oxygen.
        
        oxidative phosphorylation oxidizes with oxygen and happens in mitochondria.
- - - - Electromagnetic radiation spectrum consist of gamma rays ,x-rays, ultravoilet waves, infraed rays , microwaves and radio waves.
        
        it respond to light quanta that have just enough energy to boost electrons one or two enegry levels.
    - - Photosynthetic pigments transfer absorbed light energy to electrons that then enter chemical reactions
        
        Accessor pigments have abosorption have absorption spectra different from that of chlorophyll a and they therefore absorb different wavelength and transfer energy to chlorophyll a.
        
        photosystem I
        
        In photosystem I energy is absorbed by a pair by a pair P700 chlorophyll a molecules raising 2 electrons to an excited energy level.
        
        from they pass onto fe4-s4 then onto ferredoxin and finally onto ferredoxin-NADP reductase.
        
        after 2 electrons have reduced they are trasnferred to NADP+ H+
        
        1 more item...
        
        Photosystem II
        
        taking an electron from one chorophyll , P680 to pass it onto another chlorophyll a P700which then send it to NADP+butthe physical difference between the two molecules of chlorhyll a are crucial.
        
        gets new elecron from water, not plastocyanin.
- - - - Guard cells are asscociated with epidermal cells that usually differ in shape are also called subsidiary cells.
        
        Root hair are involved in water and mineral absorption. #
        
        Trichomes provide barriers to insect attack, shade the underlying tissue, scretion of salts in some species.
  - - - tracheids and vascular tissue
        
        enter through roots.
    - - sieve cells and seive tube member
        
        distrubutes sugar and minerals.
- - - - other functions of stem
        
        functions
        
        other of functions of stem are
  - - - Derived from shoot and apical meristems.
      - primary tissue only present.
      - makes the soft, herbaceous part of the plant.
      - herbs are made only of primary tissues.
    - - derived from lateral meristem
      - secondary tissue makes bulk of plant : wood and the bark.
      - primary tissue is present only at the apex of shoots and roots.
- - - - parenchyma tissue is a mass of parenchyma cells that are active metabollically abd usually remain alive at maturity.
        
        Glandular cells secret nectar, fragrances, mucilage, resins, oils and they have large amount of endoplasmic reticulum and dictyosomes.
        
        transfer cells are cells with wall in growth that are involved in movement of large amounts of solutes over short distances .
        
        Chlorenchyma cells are parenchyma cells involved in photosynthesis. it has many chloroplast.
  - - - 2 types pf sclerenchyma cells
        
        Mechanical non conducting sclerenchyma
        
        Fibers are long slender and tapered cells that occur in bundle or strands. remain alive and are involve din maturity.
        
        sclereids are short and often cubical or of variable shape. often dead at maturity.
        
        Conducting sclerenchyma
        
        Tracheids are long and narrow with tapered ends: contain no perforations. Dead at maturity. found in all vascular plants.
        
        Vessel elements are short and wide with rather perpendicular end walls. most contain one or to perforations . dead at maturity,found almost exclusively in flowering plants. among nonflowering plnats, only few ferns, horsetails and gymnosperms have vessel.
  - - - provide plastic support
        
        cell wall can be deformed by pressure and tension and return to its original position once the pressure or tension stops.
        
        there is no inter cellular spaces between collenchyma cells.
- - - - lateral buds are also called axillary buds and it is associated with leaf axils.
  - - - Alternate Phyllotaxy
        
        leaves one per node
      - Opposite Phyllotaxy
        
        leaves two per node
      - Decussate Phyllotaxy
        
        leaves loacted in four rows.
      - Whorled Phyllotaxy
        
        Three or more leaves per node.
      - Spiral Phyllotaxy
        
        Leaves not aligned with their nearest neighbors.
      - Distichous Phyllotaxy
        
        Leaves located in two rows only.
    - - Stolons also called runners their internodes are long thin and their leaves do not expand. their leaves grow along the surface of the ground that root and produce a planlet.
        
        Bulbs are small conical stems with numerous storage leaves attached to it. it is short shoot that have thick fleshy leaves like onions, daffodills garlic.
        
        Corms are thickened rounded storage stem covered with thin papery scales eg: crocus gladiolus.
        
        Rhizomes are fleshy horizontal stems that allow a plant to spread underground like banboo, irises and canna
        
        Tubers are gorizontal like rhizomes but they grow for only short period and are manily a means of storing nutrients. !
        
        functions
        
        1 more item...
- - - - these are protoderm, groundmeristem and procambium
        
        protodrem will differeniate into the epidermis.
        
        Ground meristem will differentate into pith and cortex
        
        the procambium will differentiate into the vascular into the vascular tissue
- - - - :<3:Petiole #
- - - - Lower surface pf leaf is spongy mesophyll
      - Upper surface of most leaves is a layer of cells called Palisade parenchyma or palisade mesophyll.
  - - - :red_flag:from which lateral vein emerges and that branch into narrow minor veins.
      - :red_flag:mid rib called midvein.
      - :red_flag:Bundle sheath around vascular tissue.
      - :red_flag:Bundle sheath extension such fiber help give rigidity to to the blade.
  - - - Leaf Traces branch from stem vascular bundle.
      - Stipules protect the shoot apical meristem while the leaf is young and small.
- - - - Have no blade and are needle shaped
  - - - lack palisade and spongy mesophyll
        
        transport carbondioxide
- - - - must be acting with in the plant
      - development through the full cycle
      - no substitute can be effective.
    - - Needed in larger quantities by plant.
        
        Carbon, oxygen, hrdrogen, nitrogen, potassium, calcium, phosphorous, magnesium and sulfur are essential macro nutrients.
    - - Iron, chlorine, copper, manganese, boron, zinc molybdenum are essential micronutrients.
- - - - :check:Mobile elements
        
        Chlorine,magnesium, nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and sulphur.
        
        Salvaged and moved to growing plants
        
        :no_entry:Even after they have been incorporated into a tissue , they can be trans located to younger tissues.
      - Immobile elements :<3:
        
        :red_flag:Boron, calcium and iron
        
        After they have been incorporated into plant tissue, they remain in place.
        
        Growth is normal until the soil is exhausted.
  - - - Lack chlorophyll.
        
        Brittle and papery
        
        lend to yellowish
- - - - change in temperature
      - wind and water movemnet
      - ice is an important agent
    - - As solid increases the greater concentration of protons causes more cations to be released from soil micelles.
    - - :forbidden:Chemical reaction,acid produced by decaying bodies
    - - loosely bound to micelle surface
        
        first it should freely dissolve in water
        
        root cannot absorb
    - - mycorrhiza
        
        provide phosphorous
    - - endodermis prevents uncontrolled, apoplastic diffusion in the roots.
        
        impermeable to roots and water borne diseaese.
- - - - reduce nitrogen to nitrate ion
        
        Oxidize ammonia to nitrate
  - - - reduced nitrogen by catching animals
- - - - complex protein
      - minerals
- - - - increase absorption and transport capacities of the root system
    - - small numerous roots
        
        coming out to the tap root.
    - - embryonic taproot.
    - - monocots and eudicots mass of similar sized roots.
  - - - cells closest to root meristem also called merisistematic.
        
        undergo cell division.
        
        cells on edge grow toward side and proliferate.
      - provide effective protection.
      - helps remain in place.
      - cells structure and metabolism chance dramatically.
      - middle lameila breakdown and releases cells.
      - Dictyosomes of root cap cells secret complex ploysaccharide.
        
        called Mucigel.
    - - Complex polysaccharide
      - cells undergo division and expansion.
    - - cells differentiate into visible pattern.
        
        just behind root apical meristem
      - regions where cells expand greatly.
      - protoxylem and protophloem closest to meristem.
      - older larger cells develop to meistem.
      - ground tissue differentiate into root cortex.
    - - Epidermal cells extend out as narrow trichomes.
    - - Increase surface area.
        
        non elongating
        
        form carbonic acid and is unicellular
        
        no thick walls.
        
        extremely transitory.
- - - - parenchyma cells
        
        lateral roots
    - - endodermis.
    - - control types of materials that enter the xylem
  - - - quiescent center. #
    - - take over by #
  - - - differentiate into epidermis.
    - - Develop in primary xylem and primary phloem.
    - - protoxylem and protophloem.
    - - little absorption occurs.
  - - - slow to develop.
    - - cause powerful absorption of water and water pressure called
        
        root pressure.
- - - - long term storage for Co2
        
        use stored Co2 to produce new shoot.
        
        annual plant can survive without storage.
  - - - woody forest plant
        
        herbaceous plant.
  - - - roots of parasitic plants.
- - - - mutations
        
        new alleles or new genes
        
        more or less adapted to environment
        
        affect fitness to the individual
        
        if beneficial reproduce better
        
        if deleterious reproduce slow or die.
- - - - significance
        
        depends on population size.
      - all genomes
      - existing alleles decrease in frequency
      - new alleles increases
    - - many phenomena's
      - organisms cannot adapt
      - collision of large meteorite
        
        with earth
        
        large surface is destroyed
        
        large organism are eliminated.
    - - selective breeding of animals
      - human purposefully change allele frequency
        
        look for desirable quantities.
      - selective breeding of crops
        
        wild population and cultivated plants.
    - - survival of the fittest
        
        most adapt to the environment survive
      - different phenotypes
        
        from different survival.
      - more offsprings
      - have different characteristics/traits
      - inherit traits from parents.
  - - - insect attack
      - drought
      - cold
      - pollinators
    - - produce allele that result in improved fitness
      - result in improved cold hardiness.
      - may be eliminated from gene pool if killed by fungus
      - if survive in cold hardiness it may improve species.
      - cold winter infrequent
        
        does not exert strong selection pressure.
      - if cold winter are common
        
        greatly improves fitness and frequency increases rapidly.
- - - - reproductively isolated
        
        Abiological Reproductive Barriers
        
        physical , nonliving
        
        prevents two population
        
        cannot interbreed
        
        allorpatric or geographic speciation
        
        biological reproductive barriers
        
        sympatric speciation
        
        prevents successful gene flow
        
        flower, color, shape or fragnance
        
        evolutionary changes.
      - some evolve into new species, some remain same
      - not homogenous througout its entire range
    - - species gradually become so changed
      - must be considered a new species.
      - millions of years often required.
      - movement of alleles called Gene flow
        
        Pollen Transfer
        
        carry one haploid genome.
        
        good travel distances
        
        ragweed, grasses and confiers.
        
        Seed Dispersal
        
        seeds and fruits.
        
        long distance dispersal
        
        wind , floods and stream flow.
        
        Vegetative propagation.
        
        small , mobile species
        
        gene flow, meiosis, crossing over and genetic recombination.
- - - - chemical and physical processes.
  - - - adding of oxygen from photosynthesis.
      - derived from second atmosphere. # #
  - - - second atmosphere
        
        replaced first atmosphere that was lost in space
        
        produced by released gases from rock matrix
      - reducing atmosphere
        
        powerful reducing agents
        
        early second atmosphere
        
        lack of molecular oxygen
    - - rainstrom,electricity, UV radiation, heat volcanoes
- - - - A zygote undergoes only meiosis, producing more spores that will grow into new gametophytes.
      - A zygote cannot undergo mitosis and cannot grow into a sporophyte.
      - Thus, an important step in the evolution of embryophytes.
  - - - 1.) Nonvascular plants in which sporophytes became much simpler and dependent on the gametophytes.
      - 2.) The rest of the vascular plants, in which sporophytes became increasingly elaborate whereas gametophytes became very reduced.
- - - - Earliest vascular land plant fossil
      - A genus of extinct plants
    - - both branches being of equal size and vigor
    - - the common name for Rhynia and its close relatives, the earliest vascular plants
    - - a vascular cylinder that has no pith; common in roots and early vascular plants # #
    - - protoxylem is located in the center and metaxylem differentiates on the outer edge of the xylem mass
    - - with metaxylem located in the center of the xylem mass and protoxylem on the edges as several groups next to the phloem
    - - a vascular cylinder that contains pith; common in stems but absent in early vascular plants
    - - Seeds may have originated twice in evolution.
- - - - Present in ferns and all seed plants.
  - - - They consist of several genera of extinct plants and one genus, Equisetum, with 15 extant species known as:
        
        horsetails
        
        a nonflowering plant with a hollow jointed stem that bears whorls of narrow leaves, producing spores in cones at the tips of the shoots
        
        scouring rushes
        
        a horsetail with a very rough ridged stem, formerly used for scouring and polishing
    - - in the arthrophytes (sphenophytes), a stalked, umbrella-like structure that bears sporangia
    - - a main trunk, lateral branches, true leaves, and true roots
  - - - Tmesipteris: limited to Australasia, primarily Australia and other South Pacific islands
- - - - where organism completes its life cycle.
    - - Abiotic #
      - biotic
  - - - spores
      - fruits
      - seeds
      - vegetative propagules
  - - - components such as
        
        temperature.
        
        rainfall.
        
        relative humidity
        
        winds.
      - numerous metabolic processes
      - sufficient moisture
        
        increased amount of water produce
        
        increased growth and reproduction
        
        tolerance range
        
        between low and high extremes
        
        ranges vary greatly species to species.
    - - formed from breakdown of rock
      - invade new soil
        
        pioneers
      - have little water holding capacity
      - pioneer live in soil
      - A horizon=uppermost, sometime called zone leaching.
        
        consist of litter and debris
        
        as it breaks down
        
        rainwater washes nutrients
      - B horizon= zone of deposition
        
        area where materials from zone A accumulates
        
        rich in nutrients , contains humus and clay
      - C horizon
        
        composed of rock and rock fragments.
    - - height sometimes= soil quality
      - day length
      - light energy
    - - phenomena such as
        
        fire
        
        landslde
        
        snow avalanche
        
        floods
        
        affect biotic factors directly. # #
  - - - could be beneficial or detrimental
        
        aids own successful reproduction
      - changes the habitat itself
    - - when several together, possible interaction
      - could benefit b both organisms
      - Competition
        
        where 2 populations don't grow as well together as they would separately
        
        could be disadvantageous l for one organism
      - Mutalism
        
        basically beneficial for both organism
      - Competitive exclusion
        
        whichever species is less adapted
        
        is excluded from ecosytem.
      - Niche
        
        each species is assumed
        
        to a particular set of conditions
      - ecotypes
        
        each specialized into particular ecosytem.
      - commensal relationship
        
        one species benefits and other is unaffected.
      - predation
        
        one species benefits
        
        other is harmed
- - - - ability of a plant species to spread throughout a geographic area
    - - one factor determining the health of the plant
  - - - used whenever there is no obvious, identifiable pattern to the position of individuals
    - - spacing between plants is either small or large
    - - occurs in orchards and trees plantations
      - evenly spaced from their neighbors
  - - - number of individuals in a population that can live in a particular ecosystem
      - symbolized by K
    - - length of tie from the birth of one individual until the birth of its first offspring
  - - - resources are plentiful for the few that remain
      - fire or flood destroys many individuals in the area
    - - population is close to its carrying capacity
      - conditions in a crowded habitat
- - - - frist step of any food web
    - - secondary producers
    - - fungi and bacteria
- - - - pyruvate is trasnported from the cytosol . Electrons are transmitted to NAD+
        
        COO- is rearrenged to co2
        
        Carbon dioxide and Nadh are produced along with a two carbon fragment called acetyl.
        
        The acetyl becomes attached to coenzyme A(COA) resulting in combination of being acetyl CoA.
        
        Citric Acid Cycle
        
        The Acetyl is trasnfered an acceptor molecule , oxaloacetate. (A4 carbon)
        
        1 more item...
    - - Glucose-6-phosphate
      - NADP+ converted to NADPH +H+ and 6- phosphogluconate gives off carbon dioxide
        
        Ribulose 5-p
        
        ribulose -5-p
        
        Xylulose -5-p
        
        3 phosphoglyceraldehyde
        
        Fructose -6-p
        
        Etythrose-4-p
        
        1 more item...
        
        3-phophateglyceraldehyde
        
        to aerobic respiration.
        
        Ribulose -5-p
        
        Nucleotide biosynthesis
        
        sedopheptulose -7-p
- - - - Fatty acids are broken down into 2 carbon units -acetyl CoA- by process of Beta oxidation and either cytosol or microbodies called glyoxysomes.
        
        Acetyl CoA
        
        Anabolism
        
        Carbohydrates
        
        catabolism further respiration.
        
        Remaining compound in the respirtaion of lipids can enter the citric acid cycle and be further respired.