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Botany (Plants, Genetics), Seed Plants I: Seed Plants Without Flowers…

- - - - They have short and wide stem and only two leaves.
    - - They are mostly vines or small shrubs with broad leaves.
- - - - It is more elaborately packaged, being complexed with nucleosome histones and forming chromosome.
    - - It is located within a nucleus which is separated from the cytoplasm by two nuclear.
  - - - It is naked, not complexed with proteins.
    - - It lies directly in the cytoplasm.
- - - - The green algae constitute an extremely important group.
      - It have remarkable development and metabolic plasticity.
      - The diversity in green algae is tremendous.
      - Body Construction in Green Algae
        
        Motile Colonies
        
        Nonmotile colonies
        
        Filamentous body
        
        Membranous body
        
        Parenchymatous body
        
        Coenocytic body
  - - - It is red color due to present of phycoerythrin.
        
        These algae that grow in bright surface waters.
      - Walls of red algae contain a thick layer of slimy mucilage called sulfated galactans.
      - They are usually multicellular and life cycles of most red algae are poorly known.
- - - - Stamens
        
        Collectively as the androecium
        
        Male part of the flower produce pollen
        
        Two parts
        
        Filament
        
        Anther
      - Petals
        
        Broad, flat and thin
        
        Produce volatile fragrances, and insects and bat follow the aroma gradient to the flower.
      - Carpels
        
        Three main parts
        
        a style
        
        that elevates the stigma to a useful position
        
        an ovary
        
        megaspores are produced
        
        a stigma
        
        that catches pollen grains
        
        Constitute the gynoecium
        
        Placenta
        
        Inside the ovary
        
        Ovules
        
        Region of tissue that bear small structures
        
        Nucellus
        
        Ovule has a central mass of parenchyma
      - Sepals
        
        the lowermost and outermost of the four floral appendages
        
        typically the thickest, toughest and waxiest of the flower parts
        
        protect the flower from nectar-robbing insects and birds
  - - - sporophyte generation
        
        One phase of the plant life cycle
      - Two Generations
        
        sporophyte and gametophyte
        
        alternation of generations
      - Microgametophytes
        
        Male
      - Megagametophytes #
        
        Female
      - Two types of spores
        
        Microgametophytes from microspores
        
        Megagametophytes from megaspores
      - Gametes can fuse with other gametes in a process called fertilization.
      - Gamets
        
        Egg
        
        Sperm
      - Spore
      - Zygote
- - - - technical term for a multinucleate megagametophyte
    - - Large
    - - two
    - - Thrre small
    - - two synergids
- - - - It is pollination of a carpel by pollen from the same flower or another flower on the same plant.
  - - - Flowers that lack either or both essential organs are not only incomplete
    - - It may lack either sepals or petals or both
    - - they produce the critically important spres
    - - Sepals and petals do not produce spores
    - - Only carpellate flowers
    - - Having staminate flowers
- - - - fruits containing only ovarian tissue
    - - present of nonovarin tissue
- - - - Fusiform Initials
        
        They are long , tapered cells and they produce the elongate cells of wood and phloem.
        
        Axial xylem
        
        Axial pholem
        
        Cork Cambium
        
        Phelloderm
        
        Cork
      - Ray Initials
        
        They are short and more or less cuboidal. They produce short cells and storage parenchyma and in gymnosperms albuminous cells.
        
        Phloem rays
        
        Xylem rays
- - - - Trachea elements
        
        longitudinal conduction
  - - - Parenchyma
        
        Rays
        
        upright cells
        
        Procumbant cells
- - - - These plants had upright, dichotomously branched stems, vascular tissue, stomata,and a cuticle.
- - - - Trimerophyton
      - Psilophyton
      - Pertica
- - - - Megaphylls leaves that evolved from branch systems and are present in all seed plants, ferns, and equisetophytophytes.
      - Megaphyll evolution is summarized by the telome theory.
- - - - they are shared ancestral features - symplesiomorphies- and thus do not indicate they are closely related.
      - we construct cladograms on the basis of shared derived features - synapomorphies - not on a lack of features.
- - - - Habitat
        
        Terrestrial
        
        Human impact
        
        waste
        
        conversation
        
        Pollution
        
        Aquatic
      - Habitat Fragmentation
- - - - Food chain
        
        Niche
        
        Food web
        
        Pyramid of numbers
      - Micro-organisms
- - - - Adapt to survive
        
        Behavior
        
        Stucture
        
        Functining
- - - - by retaining the megaspore and allowing the megagametophyte to develop within the sporangium
- - - - these could not yet be called leaves
  - - - planated branch systems and that the ultimate" leaflets" were really spirally arranged simple leaves
    - - megaspores measured up to 300 in diameter and microspores only 30 in diameter
        
        and each type was produced in its own distinctive sporangium-broad megasporangia and slender microsporangia
        
        sporangia were terminal on short branches mixed with sterile, leaf like branch systems.
        
        megaspores were released from the sporangia, not retained. seeds were not produced
  - - - the megasporangium was surrounded by a layer of tissue, an integument that permitted the sperm cells to swim to the egg after the megaspore had developed into
      - a megagametophyte and had produced eggs
        
        this is similar to angiosperm ovules and some fossils help us understand the early stages
    - - as they fused to each other and to the megasporangium, the space at the top of the megasporangium became the place where microspores settled, acting as a pollen chamber or holding area
- - - - even very old stems have only a small amount of wood;
        
        moat support is provided by the tough leaf bases
      - a prominent pith contains secretory canals
- - - - Mosses
- - - - Morphology
        
        The leafy stems, technically known as gametophores.
        
        Moss gametophytes grow from an apical meristem that contains a prominent apical cell.
      - Water Transport
        
        Hydroids
        
        Leptoids
        
        Rhizoids
      - Development
        
        Protonema
      - Reproduction
        
        It produces gametangia.
        
        All mosses are oogamous.
        
        Antheridia
        
        Sperms are produced in micro gametangia called antheridia.
        
        Archegonia
        
        Egg occurs in mega gametangia called archegonia.
- - - - Lower Epidermis
      - Upper Epidermis
  - - - Palisade Mesophyll
      - Spongy Mesophyll
- - - - Types Of Blades
        
        Simple Leaf blade
        
        Compound Leaf Blade
        
        It has a blade divided into several individual parts.
        
        It has a blade of just one part.
- - - - Light energy is the form of energy which is directly came from the sun.
        :
        
        Now, this light energy enter to the leaf. where it goes through chroloplast.
        
        It perform many metabolic reaction.Then light energy will converted to the chemical energy.
        
        Carbon Dioxide takes and oxygen threw
- - - - They have descended from a common ancestor.
      - They have undergone convergent evolution.
    - - Homologous features
    - - Analogous features
- - - - Biotic Habitat
        
        Biotic Components are living factors.
        
        For Example : species of fungi, animals, protists, prokaryotes, plants.
      - Abiotic Habitat
        
        Abiotic Components are nonliving and are physical phenomena.
        
        For Example: Climate, Soil, Altitude, Floods,
- - - - Random Distributions
        
        It is used whenever there is no obvious, identifiable pattern to the position of individuals .
      - Clumped Distributions
        
        It is a distributions in which the spacing between plants is either small or large, but rarely average.
      - Uniform Didtributions
        
        It is a types of distributions which occur in orchards and tree plantations
        .
- - - - The sequence of DNA nucleotides that guides the construction of RNA and proteins and also controls construction of more copies of the genes themselves.
- - - - Alleles that a single individual.
    - - The expression of those alleles in the individuals's size, shape, or metabolism.
- - - - soft leaves
        
        Petals
        
        Fruits
        
        seeds
  - - - Conducting
        
        Mechanical
- - - - It is composed of primary tissue.
        
        Herbaceous parts of a plant
        
        Examples Beams, corn, and wheat
  - - - It is composed of wood and bark
        
        Woody and bark tissue
        
        Example Palm Trees
- - - - Shoot is the stem plus any leaves, flowers or buds that may be present.
- - - - They were considered the most relictual living flowering plants.
- - - - Have only one cotyledon on each embroy.
    - - They have two cotyledon
- - - - Coconuts and dates
      - Their flowers are tiny
      - Palms
    - - contain the grass family Poaceae
      - They are cattails and Bromeliaceae.
    - - Contain the most familiar of all houseplants
      - The leaves are broad and have a petiole.
- - - - DNA based studies have combined a large number of families into a group.
    - - Flowers have so little fusion
    - - They are parasitic
- - - - Tundra
      - Temperate Forests
      - Tropical rain forests
      - Grassland
- - - - It is dominated by giant long-lived conifers.
    - - The climate that produce the temperate deciduous forests biome is one with old Winters and warm but not hot summers and relatively high precipitation in all seasons.
    - - It occurs at the southern edge of the oak/pine component of the temperate deciduous forest.
      - It shows the powerful effect that disturbance and soil type exert.
- - - - Woodlands and Shrublands often occur as the transition between a moist forest and a dry grassland or between grassland and dessert.
- - - - Ectomycorrhizal
        
        Fungal hyphae penetrate between the outermost root cortex cells.
      - Endomycorrhizal
        
        Hyphae penetrate the endodermis which they pass through the walls of water cells.
- - - - Mutation
      - Accidents
      - Artificial Selection
      - Natural Selection
- - - - In which one species gradually becomes sp changed that it must be considered a new species
      - Gene Flow
        
        New beneficial alleles arise and are selected for,they become spread throughout the entire population, this movement of alleles physically through space, called gene flow.
        
        It occurs in many ways.
        
        Pollen Transfer
        
        Seed Dispersal
        
        Vegetative propagation
    - - In which some populations of a species evolve into a new, second species while other populations either continue relatively unchanged as the original, parental species or evolve into a new, third species.
        
        Reproductively Isolated
        
        Two Fundamental cause
        
        Abiological Reproductive Barriers
        
        Biological Reproductive Barriers