Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

COURSE MAP (There is a lot here, even at 25% zoom not everything is…

- - - - One example is the Venus Flytrap's 6 trichosomes.
    - - Movements may be repeated
  - - - Formation of suture when petal or carpel primordia grow against each other.
      - Formation of extra bark where branches rub #
  - - - Growth toward bright light is an example
      - Positive Tropism
        
        Growth toward stimulus
        
        Most tap roots are positively gravitropic.
      - Negative Tropism
        
        Growth away from stimulus
        
        Not as common as positive tropism.
  - - - Cell swims to stimulus
    - - Cell swims away from stimulus
- - - - 125 are known
      - None are named, but numbered
      - They have diverse functions, but unifying structure
      - GA3 has the name Gibberellic Acid, and has been studied the most.
    - - Single compound
      - Originally thought to play a role in abscission of fruits, leaves, and flowers.
        
        True purpose is not quite known
      - Widely regarded as growth inhibitor
    - - 1st hormone discovered in plants
      - Involved in phototropism in oat seedlings
      - Identifying it chemically was impossible when first found
    - - Only gaseous hormone
      - Simplest structure
  - - - Threshold
        
        Level of stimulus that must be present during presentation time
        
        In Venus Flytraps, for example, the threshold for triggering a response is moderate. The leaf hairs must be bent firmly to cause a Flytrap to close up.
      - Presentation time
        
        A root must lie on its side long enough for statoliths to do their work, for example
        
        Length of time a stimulus must be present for perceptive cells to react.
- - - - Root growing against stone
      - Branches rubbing each other
    - - If a tendril touches an object, it simply grows around it providing support.
      - Some plants use touch as a tool. Venus Flytraps use it to catch and eat bugs, for example. #
  - - - Cold temps
        
        Required for normal flowering of biennial and many perennial plants.
        
        Some species of perennial trees require very cold temperatures to operate efficiently.
      - Key metabolism usually doesn't proceed at temperatures above 1-7 degrees Celsius during the winter.
  - - - Vertical stems support more overall weight.
      - Roots growing downward helps reach nutrients easier
      - Stems growing sideways can result in more resources being used to simply keep the plant growing upward to survive.
  - - - If enough is available, plants grow. If not, fewer or none grow.
    - - Triggers adaptations in plants
        
        Production of abscisic acid
        
        Production of new leaves
        
        Increasing cuticle on existing leaves
        
        Abscission of leaves
  - - - Direction/gradient of light
        
        Allows a plant to grow or orient leaves toward a region of bright light.
      - Duration of light
        
        Provides further info on time of year.
        
        Air pressure unsuitable due to temperatures potentially undergoing rapid changes.
  - - - DAMPs
        
        Allow the plant to "know" certain cells have been damaged
        
        Damage Associated Molecular Patterns
        
        Pattern Recognition Acceptor Proteins assist DAMPs in "getting the message across".
      - Toxins introduced, DAMPs used.
        
        Some plants, like Fungi, have MAMPs.
        
        Microbe-associated Molecular Patterns
        
        Plasma membrane has slots that resemble chitin
        
        MAMPs come from chitin of cell walls.
- - - - Always simple needles or scales.
      - Perennial, lasts many years.
      - Leaves of Agathis or Araucaria remain even on extremely old trunks.
- - - - Stems have a thick cortex with secretory ducts.
      - Tracheids are long and wide.
      - Rays are massive.
    - - Unlike seed ferns, cycad foliage leaves don't bear ovules.
      - Cycads produce seed cones and pollen cones.
      - Pollen cones consist of spirally arranged shield shaped microsporophylls.
- - - - Contains 40 species
      - Tough shrubs and bushes that are very common in desert regions of North America and dry mountains in South America.
      - Leaves are reduced and scale like.
    - - Only one species.
      - The few living plants live in the deserts of South Africa or in cultivation.
      - Short, wide stem with only two leaves.
      - Leaves grow perennially from a basal meristem, becoming increasingly longer. #
    - - Contains 30 species
      - Mostly vines or small shrubs with broad leaves similar to dicots.
- - - - Stomatal complexes
      - Leaf trace organization
  - - - Individual cones contain both micro and mega sporophylls.
      - Each ovule had a stalk/
      - Megasporangium was surrounded by an integument that extended out into a long micropyle.
- - - - Wall exhibits plasticity.
      - Primary wall remains thin in some places, thick in others.
      - Nature of this cell wall is important to understand its function.
    - - Present as a layer just under epidermis, or as bands next to vascular bundles.
      - Elongating shoot tips that must be flexible.
    - - Turgid
      - If a plant wilts and droops, collenchyma cannot hold up the stem. #
  - - - Can absorb water enough to stretch walls.
      - Walls are strong enough to prevent protplast from expanding.
      - Rigidty of sclerenchyma makes it quite unusable for growing shoot tips.
  - - - Glandular
        
        Secrete nectar, fragrances, mucilage, resins, and oils.
        
        Few chloroplasts
        
        Elevated amounts of dictyosomes and endoplasmic reticulum.
      - Transfer
        
        Contains large plasma membrane.
        
        Large membrane with numerous ridges, folds, etc. allow for large-scale molecular pumping.
        
        Mediate short distance transport.
      - Chlorenchyma
        
        Involved in photosynthesis
        
        Numerous chloroplasts
        
        Thin walls allowing light and CO2 to move into chloroplasts.
- - - - Regions between nodes
    - - Just above the point where the leaf attaches.
      - The bud is a miniature shoot with a dormant apical meristem.
      - Bud is covered by waxy bud scales.
- - - - Tracheids
        
        Obtain water from others below them.
        
        They must occur in groups.
      - Vessel Elements
        
        Moves water with less friction than tracheids.
      - Both of below are tracheary elements
  - - - Phloem
        
        Distributes sugars and minerals
      - Xylem
        
        Conducts water and minerals
  - - - Photosynthetic Parenchyma
      - Occasionally collenchyma
      - In other species, it can be very complex.
  - - - Surface protects from invasive things such as bacteria.
- - - - When a fusiform undergoes cell division with a wall parralel
    - - Perpendicular to cambrium's surface
      - Occurs when vascular cells must divide longitudinally
  - - - Also undergo periclinal cell divisions
    - - Elongate fusiform cells produce elongate cells of wood
  - - - Cells in a position that don't undergo cell cycle arrest
    - - Connects on each side with Fascicular Cambria
      - Formed by some mature parenchyma cells
  - - - Fusiform
        
        Occurs in horizontal rows
        
        Can occur in irregular patterns
      - Ray
        
        Grouped in short vertical rows
    - - Never has large regions of either initial one way.
- - - - Wood formed at beginning stages of life.Wide vessels.
    - - Wood produced after the cuticle has thickened, transpiration is less, and new vessels are functioning
    - - Early wood and late wood put together when observed
    - - Another term for the visible ring inside a tree's trunk, displaying how long a tree has lived.
  - - - Darker, drier wood.
      - Becomes wider with age
    - - Lighter and moister outer region wood.
      - New layer formed each year
      - Thickness is rather constant
  - - - Vessels
        
        Present in Eudicots
      - Fibers
        
        Present in Eudicots
      - Tracheids
        
        Present in Conifers and Eudicots
      - Parenchyma
        
        Rare in Conifers, present in Eudicots
    - - Ray Parenchyma
        
        Present in both Conifers and Eudicots
      - Ray Tracheids
        
        Present in Conifers
- - - - Regions of aerenchymatous cork
      - Allows passage of O2
  - - - Phellem Cell
      - Results of differentiation. Outer layer.
- - - - None have secondary growth like that in gymnosperms, angiosperms, etc.
      - Some become treelike
      - Can produce secondary vascular bundles
    - - In some species, 2 sectors of cambium remain very active while 2 are almost inactive
      - Stem grows outward in 2 directions but remains dormant in other 2.
      - Flexibility, in Bauhina, generally remains the same
    - - Stored parenchyma increased dramatically
      - Cambia acts normally, except parenchyma is produced mostly #
      - May contain hundreds of cambia at various ages #
  - - - Major example of anomalous growth
      - Increase in width and addition of adventitious roots: establishment growth
        
        At some point, the process stops.
      - Same type of growth occurs in monocots #
      - 1 layer of cells, meristem, and vascular cambrium
- - - - Vineyards are typically the most expensive land for agriculture in terms of upkeep and whatnot.
      - Most vineyards have already been chosen very specifically. Climate change could wreak havoc on these specific places, due to changing weather conditions. If first frost changes even slightly, or other conditions that may seem meaningless, entire vineyards could be made useless.
      - Vineyards are very particular areas, growing very particular types of grape or fruit. So much so production facilities are usually never more than a few miles away.
    - - If other fruits are used, they are named.
  - - - Differing types of spirits result from distillation.
        
        Distillation of grain-based fermentations results:
        
        Whiskey
        
        Vodka
        
        Vodka is pure ethanol and water, basically. Russians... Always taking things to another level called "crazy".
        
        Vodka is also made cheap. Cheapi Breeki comrade.
        
        Gin
        
        Tequila and Mescal are made from fermented agave plant juice.
        
        Interesting detail, both agaves store carbohydrates not as starch, but as inulin (NOT INSULIN), a polymer of fructose.
        
        Distilling molasses creates rum. Insert pirate jokes here: __
    - - Once above 20%, the solution is toxic to yeast. It dies. The end. Well... Of yeast.
  - - - Light beers
        
        Fewer calories than ordinary beer.
        
        Two ways to make this happen.
        
        Convert more more starches to sugars.
        
        Brew with a mash that contains fewer carbohydrates.
      - S. Uvarum is used for lager beers. Pale lager being the most popular.
      - Sake
        
        Fermented rice.
        
        Unique processes used unlike other beers. (Fungus Aspergillus oryzae is used!)
      - S. Cerevisiae is used for ales.
        
        Brown ale
        
        porter ale
        
        Light ale
        
        pale ale
    - - Barley is the most rich in enzymes, and is most commonly used in making beer.
      - Wheat is becoming a more popular ingredient for beer.
- - - - Selectively advantageous for plants to produce more ATP per molecule, and lose less heat to surrounding environment.
        
        Some plants use this technique regardless.
        
        Plants are more efficient at producing heat than humans, usually.
        
        Attracts pollinators
        
        Can melt snow cover, as the Skunk cabbage does, exposing flowers.
      - Critical to warm-blooded animals
        
        We sweat to somewhat help bring down heat levels.
        
        Yawning helps cool the head.
        
        We shiver to bring heat up in cold environments
      - Usually inefficient
  - - - Catabolic Metabolism
        
        PAIRS ABOVE AND BELOW
        
        Fatty acids then break into...
        
        2-carbon units (acetyl CoA)
        
        CoA then used for:
        
        Enters citric acid cycle
        
        Synthesis of carbohydrates and other compounds
        
        B-Oxidation procss to make Acetyl CoA.
        
        3 fatty acids (triglycerides)
        
        2 fatty acids (phospholipids)
        
        Glycerol
        
        Glycerol Phosphate
  - - - Flavin Mononucleotide (FMN)
        
        Binds to NADH
        
        FMN reduced, NADH -> NAD+
      - ATP Synthetase Channels
        
        NADH indirect source of ATP
        
        Each molecule of NADH provides 3 ATP's
        
        Forces phosphate group on ADP
      - Chemical NADH
  - - - Glycolysis and glucogenesis are practically the same pathway
      - Energy Creation
      - ATP/ADP
  - - - Phosphorylated 5-carbon sugars
        
        Important source for fundamental compounds.
  - - - Makes one 3-phosphoglycerate, one phosphoglycolate.
        
        Glycolate can be converted to glycine.
        
        Can be transferred to mitochondria.
        
        Can be converted to serine.
        
        Phosphoglycolate transported to peroxisomes.
- - - - Roots can have two states after rain.
        
        Hypoxia
        
        Apoxia
  - - - Shoots in air are at different temp than roots in soil.
        
        Subjected to greater change in temperature, due to being exposed. Often of 20 degrees Celsius.
        
        Above 30 degrees Celsius, respiration increases, but not anywhere near as rapidly.
        
        Most tissues an increase of 10 degrees Celsius doubles respiration rate.
        
        Above 40 degrees Celsius, respiration slows greatly due to damage.
        
        Doubled respiration rate due to 10 degree Celsius change can be seen in enzyme-mediated
        
        Below 5 degrees Celsius, respiration decreases greatly.
- - - - NADH
        
        NADH, is a strong agent produced by the reduced NAD+.
      - NAPH
        
        Strong agent produced by reduced from
    - - Contain hydrogen
      - The hydrogen in reduced compounds reduces the number of electrons per atom.
  - - - Like Cytochromes, transports over short distances
      - 2 electrons picked up? They grab 2 protons as well.
      - Hydrophobic
        
        Long hydrocarbon tail causes this trait.
    - - Loosely associated with chloroplast membranes.
      - Carries electrons on a metal atom.
    - - Contain cofactor heme.
      - Intrinsic membrane proteins
      - Carry electrons only between sites close together
        
        Does not diffuse through stroma as NADPH does.
  - - - Photophosphorylation
        
        Animals, fungi, nonchlorophyllous plants cannot do this.
      - Substrate-level phosphorylation
        
        Compounds with high-energy phosphate groups are produced, and force their phosphate onto ADP, making ATP.
      - oxidative phosphroylation
        
        In last stages of respiration, ADP turns to ATP through this process.
- - - - Special pair of chlorphylls named P700
      - Ferredoxin
        
        Small protein located in thylakoid membrane
      - Eventually, electrons are passed to an enzyme: ferredoxin NAPF+ reductase
        
        Reduces NADP
        
        Carries 2 electrons
    - - Plastocyantin
        
        Donates an electron to the chlorophyll a of photosystem I reaction center.
      - Reaction center contains P680.
      - Operates in cooperation with Photosystem I, seemingly in a circle of giving and borrowing electrons.
    - - Fluorescence
        
        Release of light by a pigment.
        
        Dependent on chemical reactions
        
        Electrons move up and down energy levels
        
        Ground state
        
        Base state of an electron.
        
        Excited state
        
        This is when an electron is "activated".
      - Pigments do not only absorb light in plants.
        
        Benefits
        
        Attracts mates.
        
        Attracts pollinators
        
        Attracts frugivores
        
        May assist in hiding from predators.
    - - Chemisomotic phosphorylation
      - ATP Synthetase
        
        Complex of sets of enzymes that synthesize ATP from ADP.
    - - Small segment of electromagnetic spectrum
      - Radiation types
        
        Gamma rays
        
        X-rays
        
        Ultraviolet
        
        Infrared
        
        Microwave
        
        Radio
      - Wavelengths
        
        Long
        
        Microwaves
        
        Radar
        
        Infrared
        
        Radio
        
        Short
        
        Gamma
        
        Ultraviolet light
        
        Cosmic
  - - - Similar to C3 metabolism
      - Dihydroxyacetone phosphate converted into fructose 1,6-biphosphate, which turns into fructose-6-phosphate, and finally glucose-6-phosphate.
      - Glucose-6-phosphate is polymerized into amylose, amylopectin, or cellulose to be used in various operations.
  - - - Consists of multiple key steps
        
        Acceptor molecule reacts with CO2
        
        Orbitals rearrange and form 3-phosphoglycerate
        
        RubP carboxylase is used to help form a functional active site for molecules.
        
        1,3 diphosphoglycerate is reduced by NADPH to 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde.
- - - - Though they may not grow quickly, they will certainly survive.
    - - Is present in cacti, orchids, bromeliads, lilies, euphorbias.
  - - - Palisade parenchyma on top, mesophyll on bottom.
      - Dry plants cannot have system like above.
        
        Their leaf cells are packed together with little or no intracellular spaces.
  - - - Quantity
        
        Light quality or brightness
        
        Plants growing in mountains or shadow receive less light.
        
        Plants on the equator receive the greatest amount of light.
        
        Plants near the poles receive little light.
        
        All the plant environment types listed above have had to adapt to this environment, resulting in each being quite efficient at receiving just the right amount of light necessary to carry out life processes.
      - Duration
        
        Number of hours per day that sunlight is available.
        
        Near the poles, days are quite long in summer and only night occurs in midwinter.
        
        Middle latitudes, winter days are very short, and sunlight is weakened.
        
        In summers in mid lattitudes, photosynthesis processes easily reach required levels per plant.
      - Quality
        
        Quality refers to colors or wavelengths.
        
        The sun is typically the best source of light, and this differs at certain times as well, such as sunset or sunrise.
        
        Different types of plants prefer different types of light cast by the sun.
        
        Some plants such as algae need special adaptations to acquire enough light in deep water.
- - - - Along upper surface of most leaves.
      - Palisade cells separated slightly.
      - Large surface allows for maximum dissolution.
    - - Open, loose parenchyma.
      - Allows CO2 to diffuse rapidly away from the stomata
  - - - Minor veins are most important for releasing water from xylem.
      - Vein structure changes with size
  - - - Water loss through the epidermis
      - Can be a problem if the ground is too dry.
    - - Basically similar
      - Dorsiventral nature of leaves causes upper and lower epidermis to exist in different microclimates
      - Leaf epidermises are quite hairy.
      - Stem and leaf epidermises contain a coating of cutin.
  - - - 1, 3, 5, or more vascular bundles that branch from from stem vascular bundles and diverge to the petioles.
- - - - Soft, flexible blade is useless for protection.
      - Spines have no blade and are needle shaped.
  - - - Leads to leaves being soft, flexible, and edible.
  - - - Cylindrical
      - Spherical
      - Reduction in surface area allows for better water retention.
- - - - Extends upward as a cone
      - Grows rapidly and becomes taller than apical meristem
      - As it grows upward, it increases in thickness.
    - - In most perennial plants, leaves are initiated in summer or autumn.
      - After the first stage, they become dormant for a time.
        
        Little or no mitosis or cell division occurs, typically.
      - In annual plants, the process is usually quite similar to perennial plants.
  - - - Apical meristem cells adjacent to primordium grow up along it.
    - - More primary xylem and phloem are initiated.
      - Protoxylem and protophloem are constantly being stretched and disturbed.
- - - - Can accumulate or expel potassium
- - - - Most widely accepted model of the process
    - - Body water content that changes with habitat moisture
      - Cold-blooded animals are an poikohydric
      - Occurs in some liverworts
      - Lichens are great examples of this phenomena
    - - Breaking of a water column
      - Remaining water column acts as a broken cable
      - Occurs under extreme tension
  - - - Molecules interacting strongly with other same molecules
      - Water is cohesive #
      - Any force acting on molecule acts on others as well
    - - Molecules interacting with other substances
      - Water is also adhesive #
        
        Adheres greatly to soil particles
      - Substances that interact with water
        
        Exceptions
        
        lipids
        
        Cellulose
        
        DNA
        
        Sugar
        
        enzymes
- - - - Nucleotides read and used in groups of 3. 64 triplets.
    - - UAA, UAG, UGA.
      - Signals to ribosomes to stop protein synthesis
    - - Essentially extra code, but offers protection from any mutations.
    - - AUG (AUG A3 for Christmas? Please?)
      - Signals the start point of where protein synthesis should begin. Very important.
  - - - Codes for amino acid sequence
      - Is what genes are composed of
    - - Region where messengers activate genes
    - - Sequence of nucleotides were codons are eventually expressed
  - - - Carries information
      - If damaged, easily replaced with copies
      - Critical for protein synthesis
    - - Formed from histones forming aggregates and DNA wrapping around them.
    - - A mode of DNA/Protein structure.
      - Caused by Histone H1
  - - - Small kink believed to affect RNA polymerase
    - - A large molecule of both introns and exons rapidly modified by nuclear enzymes
- - - - Evolutionary Studies
        
        Restriction map
        
        Produced by a separation and staining process
        
        RFLP
        
        Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism
      - Physical Studies
        
        Reverse Transcriptase
        
        Virus enzyme that synthesizes DNA using RNA as a template
        
        cDNA
        
        Complementary DNA
        
        Synthesized using fluorescent nucleotides
        
        Expression Profiling
        
        Uses cDNAs to examine gene expression
    - - Vectors
        
        Carriers
        
        Can be genetically engineered to be the ideal DNA fragment
      - YACs
        
        Yeast artificial chromosomes
        
        Contains essential parts of yeast chromosomes
      - Plasmid
        
        Short, circular piece of DNA
        
        Acts like a tiny bacterial chromosome
      - PCR
        
        Polymerase chain reaction
        
        Only enzymes are used, rather than including yeasts as well
    - - Is a class of bacterial enzymes
      - Palindromes
        
        Related to Sarah Palin... Maybe
        
        Sequences recognized by a restriction endonuclease
      - DNA Ligase
        
        Is a DNA repair enzyme
        
        Produces "recombinant DNA"
    - - Chain termination method
        
        Method of cloning, adding enzymes, and reacting chemicals to result in thousands of DNA molecules at many sizes.
      - pyrosequencing method
        
        Similiar to above, but use of pyrophosphate is emphasized
    - - DNA Hybridization
        
        Reformation of double-stranded DNA by cooling a solution of single-stranded DNAs.
        
        Also known as reanneling.
        
        Reanneling is usually very slow, but can be quite rapid in a minority of occasions.
        
        Certain methods can be used to measure number of copies of a gene that occurs.
- - - - GMO Tomatoes are but one example of edited crops.
      - Able to be shipped while green
      - Maintain firmness for much longer
    - - Vitamin A is added, to assist those with a Vitamin A deficiency
- - - - Position
      - extent
      - Nature
    - - To add, even fewer are beneficial
  - - - Gene in a leaf primordium cell undergoing mutation, but leaves are not involved in sexual reproduction
  - - - Deletion of certain "strands" of code
      - Several known causes
        
        One method is due to short regions of sequence
        
        Other methods are similar to above
    - - Caused by many methods
      - If a small piece of foreign DNA is is present after cutting, may be incorporated.
    - - One of the most interesting cause of insertion and deletion mutations
      - Insertion Sequences
        
        A few thousand base pairs long.
        
        Contain code for enzymes involved in cutting DNA
      - Transpoon
        
        Like insertion sequence, usually much longer
        
        Carries genes that code for unrelated proteins
      - Elements must insert into specific areas to have a major effect
  - - - If perfect all the time, every cell would be identical, sexual reproduction would be useless
- - - - When a plant's own pollen is used to fertilize its own eggs
      - Can also be done by using a genotypically identical plant
    - - Useful in predicting offpsring results
      - Does not represent outcome of any one cross, however.
      - Simple box layout that is as simple or complex as necessary
  - - - Parents in the crossing
    - - Offspring of the crossing
      - Takes on traits of the parents
    - - Identical alleles
      - Happens when both parents cross and, in basic terms, are identical
    - - Non-identical alleles #
      - When neither parental trait dominates the other completely
  - - - Difficult to know what genotype of any plant is with this phenomena
- - - - Formed from crossing-over of homologous alleles
    - - Also known as a centimorgan
      - Each 1% of recombination percentages
      - Assists greatly in creation of a genetic map #
  - - - If 2 genes are on separate chromosomes, they move independently of alleles of the other gene
      - If only one trait is considered, it is treated as a monohybrid cross
      - Punnett Squares can be set up after the gametes are known #
- - - - Recently burned area
      - Recently flooded area
      - Sides of a road cut
  - - - Events to which an organism cannot adapt, such as a volcanic eruption, fire, or cataclysmic events like a large meteor striking the planet.
      - There is a massive amount of phenomena that qualifies as an accident, large and small.
      - Genetic effects
        
        Wipes out alleles of species in the area affected by accidents.
        
        Other species near the area may be affected by contaminants spread by these events.
    - - Artificial #
        
        Process where humans have an input on changes in allele frequency in species.
        
        Useful for helping useful plants to breed.
        
        Farming crops that are resistant to diseases and helping those to survive allows for more bountiful harvests.
        
        Artificial selection may also be used for ornamental plants that flower more abundantly for longer periods.
      - Natural
        
        Often referred to as "survival of the fittest".
        
        Can only act on preexisting alleles.
        
        Most significant factor causing gene pool changes.
        
        Does not always result from action of an agent outside the organism.
    - - All genomes are subjected to mutagenic factors.
      - Even one mutagenic gene can have major effects on evolution of a species.
      - Because of mutation, existing alleles decrease in frequency, and new alleles increase
      - The entire system of evolution is driven, in large part, due to mutation.
- - - - When 2 groups become reproductively isolated even though they grow together, the result is sympiatric speciation.
      - Evolutionary changes in reproductive carriers can become a barrier.
      - Biological phenomena that prevents gene flow is a biological barrier.
      - Environmental diversity of a large geographic range can lead to divergence between plants themselves.
    - - If speciation results, it is called allopatric or geographic speciation.
      - Any physical nonliving feature that prevents two populations from exchanging genes.
  - - - Wind, flood, streams, etc. are all good examples of how seeds may be dispersed.
      - Seeds or fruits that are spiny or gummy are able to stick to the fur or feathers of some animals.
      - Though fruits and seeds typically fall close to the parent plant, some have long-distance dispersal mechanisms.
    - - Alleles that arise at various sites ultimately join together through gene flow, then miosis and other systems that create many combinations.
      - If a species produces small, mobile pieces that reproduce vegetatively, these contribute to gene flow.
    - - Wind-distributed pollen can travel extreme distances.
      - Animal-mediated pollination
        
        Example: Bees carrying pollen to and from flowers.
        
        Example: Birds carrying small amounts of pollen.
        
        Another form of pollination dependent on the movement of animals for pollination.
      - Pollen grains each carry one full haploid genome.
- - - - Contains layer known as "permafrost". Permanent hard layer of frost.
      - Contains even more grasses and sedges than alpine tundra.
      - Nothing is taller than 20cm.
    - - Also known as "taiga".
      - Almost exclusively coniferous, this type of tree seems specially adapted to the climate.
      - Shrubs are not abundant, but can present themselves.
  - - - No mountains.
      - Rich soil, sufficient rainfall for easily grown crops.
      - Due to civilizing these regions for farming, initiatives are in action to return portions of grasslands back to a natural state.
    - - Rainfall is less than 25cm a year.
      - Soils are rocky and thin.
      - Creosote bush are the most common plants.
    - - Small plant life like grasses, sedges, and herbs survive here.
      - Cold most of the year.
      - Located above the highest point at which trees survive on a mountain.
  - - - Long-living conifers populate this zone.
      - Area around Washington and Oregon.
      - Stability of the forest allows for healthy growth of plants and animals that live there.
    - - Contains a fair mix of trees, higher altitudes are conifer mixes.
      - Soil is shallow and rocky.
      - Occur at bases or "mid-heights" of the Rockies.
    - - Northeastern forests have streams that flow all year.
      - Tall broadleaf trees dominate these forests.
      - Cold winters, warm summers
  - - - Typical rainfall is over 200cm a year.
      - Humidity is a constant due to consistent rainfall and equatorial position.
      - Dominant trees are angiosperms, with plenty of other life to squeeze in under the canopy.
    - - Savannas are common in Africa, Brazil, Venezuela, and Australia.
      - Termites are extremely common and graze these lands. No cattle. Termites. "Termite Steak".... Doesn't have the same ring to it.
      - Thorn-scrub is common here.
- - - - Water evaporates in vast amounts at tropical zones
      - Torrential rainfall is caused due to this evaporation and the water cycle.
      - Water is very dependent on air pressure, "deciding" when it rains.
    - - Size of landmass determines weather it receives.
      - Large, mountainous islands force air to rise as it moves across them. Rain is common.
      - Continents
        
        Continents are like islands, on a much larger scale
        
        Flat continents receive a wide net of rain. Mountainous continents receive dense amounts of rain in small areas. "Rain shadows" may form.
  - - - Air circulation drives water in the Pacific and Atlantic in 4 circular currents.
      - Northern Hemisphere currents rotate clockwise. Southern Hemisphere is counter-clockwise.
      - These currents distribute heat from the equator to the poles.
      - Equatorial currents
        
        The Pacific and Atlantic currents are on a large cycle.
        
        A large body of water moves to the equator, picks up energy and heat, moves north and loses it, then heads south again to repeat the process.
  - - - Other regions would be much cooler.
      - Equator would be far more warm.
      - Overall result is major "temperature gradient".
    - - Always 23.5 degrees.
      - Summer solstice: North pole points as directly to the sun as possible.
      - Winter Solstice: North pole points as away from the sun as possible.
      - Autumn and spring are intermediates between the extremes of summer and winter.
- - - - Without Antarctica, sea levels would be much higher.
      - Without South America, water would easily mix between the Atlantic and Pacific
      - If North America didn't have the Rockies, the western side of the continent would have much more rain. Arizona would be more than a glorified desert. # #
  - - - All life was still aquatic.
      - Ural Mountains were formed.
      - Gondwanaland
        
        Composed of South America, Africa, India, Australia, and Antarctica.
    - - Life began to move on to land.
      - North America collided with Eurasia.
      - Gondwanaland moved north and collided into Laurasia.
      - Pangaea was ultimately formed by the landmasses colliding.
        
        Contained an extremely diverse climate.
        
        It was in this new supercontinent that plant life really flourished.
    - - "Triassic Period"
      - Climate worldwide seems to have warmed.
      - In the Jurassic Period, Pangaea began to split up and formed the Tethys Sea.
      - Antarctica and the glorified British prison known as Australia began to split. Antarctican authorities cited "criminal activity" and "ridiculous taxes".
      - Massive extinctions occurred in India due to drastic climate change.
- - - - Possibility of interaction is created when multiple plant species grow close to each other.
      - Mutualism
        
        Generally beneficial "arrangement" between both plants.
      - Competition #
        
        Situation where the plants don't grow as well together as they do separately. Competition for light is extremely common.
    - - Commensal relationships may be formed, such as birds making nests in trees. Birds get a home, trees are left unharmed.
      - Predation is possible, herbivores being a direct threat to easily-reached plant life.
        
        Cattle and deer are good examples, though insects may lay eggs where the offpsring eat the plant for nutrients.
      - Animals, fungi, and prokaryotes have a definite effect on a plant.
    - - Just being there itself modifies the habitat.
      - Modification may be beneficial, detrimental, or neutral.
      - Some trees modify the habitat by producing a canopy, providing an environment suitable for their own seedlings.
  - - - A Horizon
        
        Uppermost layer of soil.
        
        "Zone of leaching".
        
        Consists of litter and debris.
      - B Horizon
        
        Zone of deposition.
        
        Area where materials from A Horizon accumulate.
      - Pioneers
        
        First plants to invade new soil.
      - C Horizon
        
        Beneath A and B Horizons
        
        Mostly parent rock and rock fragments.
      - Soil is formed by breakdown of rock.
    - - Contributes a vast amount to abiotic factors.
      - Light energy can change depending on latitude. Equatorial areas receive a great amount. Polar areas receive little.
      - Regions at high altitude are similar to those at high latitude.
        
        At high points, life becomes nothing more than small shrubs and grass or nothing at all.
    - - Affected by latitude and geographic features like mountains.
      - Critically important to the survival of anything in a given area.
      - Tolerance range
        
        Range in which life can carry on, or proceed optimally.
      - Average temperature is not as important as the extremes.
- - - - Length of time from birth of one individual to its offspring.
      - Annuals
        
        Generation time of around one year.
        
        Most conifers are nowhere near as fast in growth and generation time.
    - - Intrinsic rate of natural increase.
      - Number of offpsring produced by an individual that live long enough to reproduce under ideal conditions.
      - Even under optimal conditions, a large percentage of seeds don't germinate, with more dying before reproduction.
      - Biotic potential does not equal number of seeds produced.
  - - - A disturbance usually produces r conditions.
      - Fires may leave few plants with a large amount of resources to reproduce in large quantities.
      - r-selected species are typically annuals or small shrubby plants.
      - As more species return, r species come down to a disadvantage.
    - - k-selected species are polar opposites of r-species.
      - k-species are focused on quality over quantity.
      - Conditions in a crowded habitat close to carrying capacity fuel the process for k-species to come about.
      - For these species, it is advantageous to live for a long time.
  - - - Limiting factor
        
        Factor in which ultimately determines how well something may grow.
        
        Light intensity and CO2 available is a solid example for plant life.
        
        Limiting factors can change when certain thresholds are met. It can switch from water availability to sunlight availability and back again.
      - Desert regions
        
        A major limiting factor is availability of water
        
        Certain adaptations by plants help preserve their water reserves, helping to ease their growth and somewhat neutralize the limiting factor of water.
      - Rainy zones
        
        Plants that commonly get more rain may not benefit much from more of it, but instead more light.
        
        Competition for light in rainforests is fierce, and is certainly a major limiting factor in those environments.
    - - Random Distributions
        
        When there is no identifiable pattern to position of individuals.
        
        Most habitats are of the random distrib. type.
      - Clumped Distributions
        
        Spacing between plants is small or large, but rarely average.
        
        Can result from many factors
        
        Seeds falling near a plant.
        
        Birds or animals "depositing" seeds in one small area.
        
        Geographic topography can cluster things into a small area.
      - Uniform distributions
        
        Occur in orchards and tree plantations.
        
        All individuals are evenly spaced.
        
        Not extremely common in nature.
        
        Can be created through competition and release of chemicals
        
        Allochemics and allelopathy are both used by plants to "mark" territory and prevent other plants from growing there.
- - - - Decomposers
        
        The lowest level, they receive the least energy. Fungi and bacteria rest in this level.
      - Primary Producers
        
        Autotrophs. They are the energy and nutrient supply for herbivores.
      - Secondary consumers
        
        Carnivores. These prey on the herbivores, gaining an even smaller amount of energy.
      - Primary Consumers
        
        Herbivores themselves. They receive a sllightly lower amount of energy.
- - - - Dry fruit
        
        Not typically eaten by seed-distributing animals.
        
        Further classification
        
        Indehiscent
        
        Do not break open and release seeds.
        
        Dehiscent
        
        Break open and release seeds.
        
        Many dry fruits are dehiscent, though the exceptions remain.
      - One of several methods, focuses on if fruit is dry or fleshy,
  - - - Used to refer to tissues inside the fruit regardless of origins.
      - Terms "pericarp" and "fruit" has been applied to both types of fruit.
      - In most cases, this term refers to the ovary wall.
  - - - Definite variety of ways seeds may be carried.
      - "Sticky seeds"
        
        Hooks, barbs, etc. can latch onto animal fur or feathers. Sticky solutions may also work.
      - Edible Seeds
        
        Often are bright and colorful to promote the animal consuming the fruit and seed with it.
        
        Seeds must be made to withstand being crushed by teeth or digested by stomach acid.
        
        Immature fruits give off a bitter/sour taste, or are simply hard as a rock.
    - - Fruits and seed must be light.
      - Have evolved wings or parachutes to remain aloft.
      - Often weigh less than a single gram, speaking in terms of seeds.
    - - Must be buoyant. A seed can "drown" if underwater too long.
      - Must also be resistant to mildew and rot.
      - Can be larger and heavier than wind-carried seeds.
      - Fair example is the coconut, which is more than able to float from one island to another.
- - - - Very leaf-like.
      - Important in attracting the correct pollinators.
      - Above the sepals on the receptacle.
    - - Two main parts, the filament and anther. Pollen produced here.
      - Referred to as the "male" part of a flower.
        
        Technically not male because the flower is a sporophyte.
      - Above the petals, known collectively as the androecium.
    - - Typically the thickest and toughest parts of a flower.
      - Protects the flower from nectar stealing birds and insects.
      - Lowermost and outermost of the four appendages.
    - - 3 parts.
        
        Style, elevates stigma to a useful positon.
        
        Ovary, where megaspores are produced.
        
        Stigma, catches pollen grains.
      - Aside from bearing ovules, the carpel is rather leaflike.
      - Constitutes the gynoecium.
  - - - Embryo sacs may form.
        
        An embryo sac is a multinucleate megagametophyte (that's a mouthful).
      - Megagametophytes are made up of seven cells.
        
        Egg apparatus with two synergids and an egg, to make up what is left.
        
        3 small antipodal cells
        
        One Central Cell
      - Within the ovule, the surviving megaspore develops into this.
    - - Divides mitotically, forming the vegetative and generative cell.
      - In around 30% of angiosperms, formation of sperm cells occurs even while the pollen is still located within the anther.
      - In all angiosperms, these are very small.
  - - - New phases for Plants
        
        Fertilization
        
        Otherwise known as "syngamy".
        
        Produces a diploid known as a "Zygote".
        
        Gametes fusing with other gametes.
        
        A gamete that does not undergo syngamy almost always simply dies.
        
        Sporophyte Phase
        
        Plants people are most familiar with. Trees, shrubs, etc.
        
        Merely one part of the life cycle.
        
        Sporophytes are always diploid.
        
        Gametophyte Phase
        
        Oogamy
        
        Mammalian gametes are of two types...
        
        Small sperm cells (microgametes)
        
        Large egg cells (macrogametes).
      - Gametes
        
        Sperm
        
        Produced by Males.
        
        Eggs
        
        Produced by Females.
        
        Both haploid, need to come together to create new life.
        
        Once joined, known as "Zygote".
- - - - Stamens
        
        Produce pollen
      - Carpels
        
        Egg production
      - Lacking either results in an "imperfect flower".
      - Both are needed to advance sexual reproduction. Lacking one is a crippling blow to the plant.
    - - Sepals
      - Petals
      - While helpful, these do not necessarily damage the plant's ability to reproduce if removed.
    - - Examples of plants with Dioecy
        
        Dates
        
        Willows
        
        Marijuana #
      - Life cycle contains four types of plants:
        
        Microgametophytes
        
        Megagametophytes
        
        Staminate Sporophytes
        
        Carpellate Sporophytes
      - Related to the word "Dioecious".
    - - Examples include cattails and corn.
      - Staminate flower producers:
        
        Young plants
        
        Plants in poor conditions
      - Condition of having staminate flowers located on the same plant as carpellate flowers.
      - Carpellate flower producers:
        
        Older plants
        
        Plants growing in good conditions
  - - - Has about the same result as asexual reproduction.
      - Practically no new genetic variance happens apart from mutations.
      - If isolated, this may be the optimal form of pollination, propagates genes rather than dies.
    - - Pollination of a carpel by a different individual
      - Cross-pollination results in new combinations of genes.
      - Cross-pollination seems to have evolved to become the dominant form of pollination.
- - - - No leaves
      - Equal dichotomous branching
      - Upright stems
      - Epidermis with a cuticle
      - Simple bundle of Xylem
      - Ends of branches contained large masses
      - Homosporous
    - - They, of course, shared many similar characteristics.
  - - - 3 important distinctions
        
        Sporangia opened transversely along top edge
        
        Xylem was an exacrh protostele (protoxylem on outside, metaxylem in center).
        
        Sporangia were lateral.
        
        Some of the simplest vascular plants alive today may indeed represent a line of evolution based on Zorosterophyllum.
      - Many were similar to Rhyniophytes.
- - - - Easily mistaken to be mosses.
      - Best known species is the resurrection plant.
        
        S. lepidophylla
        
        Curls up, turns brown, and appears dead upon drying. Uncurls and regreens when moistened.
      - Less common in temperate North America
      - Heterosporous
      - May be distinguished by a small flap of tissue known as the ligule, located on the leaves.
    - - Genus of about 60 species.
      - Mostly small, unusual plants called quillworts.
      - Growth occurs in wet, muddy areas that occasionally become dry.
      - Body consists of a corn-like stem with roots attached below and leaves above.
      - Similariteiies to Selaginella
        
        Microphylls also have ligules.
        
        Heterosporous
      - Stylites
        
        Very similar plants to Isoetes
        
        Several botanists seem to suggest that these are merely extreme forms of Isoetes.
    - - 200 living species
      - Small herbs with true roots and short, upright, branches.
      - Microphylls are spirally arranged on stems.
      - All species are homosporous.
  - - - Similar to their ancestors, zosterophyllophytes, with one major difference (below). #
      - Enations were large, up to 4cm in length. It contained a single trace of vascular tissue.
        
        May, technically, be called "leaves".
        
        In reality, these are named microphylls for clarity.
    - - Names
        
        Sigilaria
        
        Stigmaria
        
        Lepidodendron
      - Characteristics
        
        Vacular cambium
        
        Secondary Growth
        
        Wood was very similar to modern day pines.
- - - - Enations/microphylls
      - Megaphylls
      - Leaves on gametophytes of nonvascular plants
  - - - The other clade related is lignophytes
    - - They have megaphylls.
      - They have a 30-kilobase inversion in the large single-copy region of their plastid DNA.
      - Roots have exarch xylem.
  - - - Trimerophyton
      - Psilophyton
      - Pertica
    - - Became distinct during the Lower Divonian.
    - - Overtopping
        
        Unequal branching where one stem was more vigorous.
      - Pseudomonopoidal branching
        
        A single main trunk.
      - Small lateral branches, some fertile, bearing sporangia, and some sterile.
  - - - 15 extant species known as horsetails or scouring rushes.
      - The living plants have no secondary growth. #
      - Usually less than 1 meter tall.
      - Reproductive structures are very specialized.
- - - - Variation in topography
      - Variation in geology
      - Variation in soil
      - More habitats.
      - More populations.
    - - Beta
        
        Compares differences between several small sites within larger region.
      - Gamma
        
        Number of species within a region
      - Alpha
        
        Number of species that occur at a small site.
  - - - One answer is that the plants near the equator are descended from a longer line of plants, and have adapted more than "newer" polar latitude plants.
    - - Until 50 million years go, Earth was much warmer.
      - The cooling of the Earth forced rapid evolutionary jumps to take place.
      - Evolutionary history seems to play a larger role than originally thought.
      - Temperate conditions are recent.
- - - - Ex: Bracken ferns producing large leaves to gain more light than other smaller plants, blocking light for those plants.
      - Mathematical models have been constructed to study this more efficiently, but are often very complicated.
      - One organism restricts another organism's access to a resource.
    - - Makes a resource less available for an organism.
      - Very common form of competition.
      - Resource competition occurs due to two or more things using the same resource.
  - - - Decision by predator to attack.
      - Probability a prey will be eaten.
      - Probability a particular prey will be encountered.
    - - Botanists and zoologists differ in points of view greatly here.
      - Examines factors between the 3 main factors of selection.
      - Optimal diet model
        
        Makes 4 predictions #
        
        If prey becomes scarce, the predator broadens its diet.
        
        Some prey items will be eaten if encountered, others if needed.
        
        Predators should prefer which prey yields most energy.
        
        Probability a plant will be eaten depends on commanality of the plant in the area.
  - - - Handling time
      - Feeding rate
      - These aspects are critical to understanding these reactions.
    - - Combination of Handling time and Feeding time.
    - - A predaotr's functional response. It is limited by amount of prey.
- - - - Has a true epidermis with stomata on base of sporangium.
      - Examples of Parts:
        
        Operculum
        
        Peristome teeth
        
        Calyptra
      - More complex, contains more parts.
    - - All spores are the same size and appear identical.
    - - Basal cell develops into a "foot".
      - Upper cell grows by cell division and forms a capsule.
      - Undergoes transverse division.
  - - - Also contributes to more efficient water storage and protection from more harsh conditions.
      - Though inevitably dessication will occur in harsh environments, some mosses are more tolerant to such circumstances.
      - Related to small size.
    - - As long as 30% of moss weight is water, they remain dormant.
      - Dessicated mosses are extremely resistant to high or low temperatures and intense UV light.
      - Many mosses can thrive at low temperatures at or below freezing, unlike vascular plants.
    - - Protects from potential dry conditions that would kill normal plants.
      - More efficient water storage systems, special adaptations.
      - One critical factor in metabolism and ecology.
  - - - Leptoids
        
        Elongate shape
        
        Have relatively prominent connections with adjacent cells.
        
        Cells that resemble sieve cells.
      - Rhizoids
        
        Located at base of the stem.
        
        Small trichome-like structures that penetrate the surface of a substrate.
        
        Only anchor the stem.
      - Hydroids
        
        Conduct water and dissolved minerals.
        
        Located in the innermost cortex.
    - - Protonema are perennial, can grow extensively.
      - Filamentous cells may break when mosses are collected.
      - Protonema
        
        Branchoid system of similar cells.
        
        Resembles an alga.
    - - Leafy stems. "Gametophores".
      - Moss gametophores
        
        Grow from apical meristem.
        
        No stomata.
        
        Leaves are aligned in 3 rows.
      - Moss stems
        
        Little tissue differentiation.
        
        Stem tissues (cortex) may be uniform in all parts, or narrower with walls somewhat thickened.
        
        Always slender
    - - Archegonia
        
        Shaped like a vase with a long neck.
        
        Where egg cells occur
        
        A single egg is located at the base.
      - Antheridia
        
        Short stalk, outermost layer of sterile cells, and an inner mass of cells.
        
        Microgametangia where sperm is produced
      - All mosses are oogamous.
- - - - Arranged in 3 clear rows. #
      - Stem tissue is simple parenchyma.
      - Greatly resembles moss, in terms of gametophores. #
    - - They are not leafy, but flat.
      - Contain a body known as a "thallus".
      - Display less resemlance to mosses.
    - - Thallose liverworts
      - In both, the gametophyte phase is initiated on germination
      - Leafy liverworts
  - - - Grows into a spherical mass.
      - As the surrounding gametophore and sporophyte decay, the spores are liberated.
      - Produced in Riccia and Ricciocarpus.
    - - The seta is extremely delicate.
      - Sporangium is globose, has no stomata.
      - Contains a foot, seta, and calyptra, like mosses.