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Word Geography (Tools of Geography (Map projections and distortions - it…
Word Geography
Tools of Geography
Absolute location
- an absolute location describes a fixed position that never changes, regardless of your current location. It is identified by specific coordinates, such as latitude and longitude
Human geography
- the branch of geography dealing with how human activity affects or is influenced by the earth's surface.
Physical geography
- the branch of geography dealing with natural features and processes.
Relative location
- a relative location is the position of something relative to another landmark. For example, you might say you're 50 miles West of Houston.
Latitude
- the angular distance of a place north or south of the earth's equator, or of a celestial object north or south of the celestial equator, usually expressed in degrees and minutes.
Longitude
- the angular distance of a place East or West of the meridian at Greenwich, England, or West of the standard meridian of a celestial object, usually expressed in degrees and minutes.
GPS
- GPS, which stands for Global Positioning System, is a radio navigation system that allows land, sea, and airborne users to determine their exact location, velocity, and time 24 hours a day, in all weather conditions, anywhere in the world.
GIS Mapping
A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer system for capturing, storing, checking, and displaying data related to positions on Earth's surface. By relating seemingly unrelated data, GIS can help individuals and organizations better understand spatial patterns and relationships.
Map projections and distortions
- it is impossible to completely accurately represent a spherical object on a flat surface, so all maps are distorted in some way. Different map projections have been created to distort certain features but accurately represent others for specific needs.
Mercator Projection
- distorts size but keeps country shape
Gallpeter Projection
- accurate size, distorts shape
Winkel Triple Projection
- distorts size and shape both, but minimally
Eckert IV Projection
- Shows size but distorts shape
Goode's Homolosine Projection
- shows continents but distorts oceans
Climate v. weather
- Weather refers to short-term changes in the atmosphere, climate describes what the weather is like over a long period of time in a specific area
5 Factors that affect climate
Latitude
- as latitude increases, the average annual temperaturedecreases
Closeness to large bodies of water
- water moderates the temperature. Cooler summers, warmer winters
Orographic Effect
- the phenomenon of warm water being blown on land and instantly hitting mountains, creating tons of rain and rain clouds. When the cloud hits the top, it is drained of its moisture. It then heads down the other side of the mountain, making that side have a "rain shadow", which makes that side super hot and dry.
Elevation
- for every 1,000 feet you go up, you lose around 3 degrees Fahrenheit in temperature
Ocean currents
- warm ocean currents can heat up the climate and cold ones can cool it down
Climograph
- plots monthly average precipitation and temperature for a given location. The line on the graph is temperature in Celsius or Fahrenheit. The bars on the graph are precipitation in centimeters or inches. It also has elevation and latitude and longitude
Location
- a particular place or position
Place
- a particular position or point in space
Movement
- the changing of location of something or someone
Human-Environmental Interaction
- interactions between the human social system and the rest of the ecosystem. Interactions can be complex because ecosystems and human social systems have many parts and many connections between these parts.
Region
- an area or division, especially part of a country or the world having definable characteristics but not always fixed boundaries.
The Economy
Industrialization
- when a country moves from the primary sector to the secondary sector. In other words, when a country goes from an economy based on harvesting raw materials to an economy based on manufacturing goods
Primary sector
- the sector of the economy which gathers raw materials, such as timber, coal, fish, wheat, etc. Developing countries are often in the primary sector
Secondary sector
- the sector of the economy which turns raw materials into finished products. China is an example of a country in the secondary sector- it has tons of factories and lots of jobs
Tertiary sector
- the sector of the economy which provides goods and services to consumers. America is an example of a country in the tertiary sector- very few things are manufactured in America
More-developed countries
- a developed country, industrialized country, more developed country, or more economically developed country, is a sovereign state that has a developed economy and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialized nations
Less-developed countries
- a Third World or nonindustrialized country.
Human Development Index
- the Human Development Index is a statistic composite index of life expectancy, education, and per capita income indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development.
Gross Domestic Product
- the total value of goods produced and services provided in a country during one year.
Globalization
- globalization or globalisation is the process of interaction and integration among people, companies, and governments worldwide.
Geographic causes of inequality
Geopolitics
Economic Geography
- Economic geography is the subfield of geography which studies the influence of geography on economic activity.
Sovereignty
- Sovereignty is the full right and power of a governing body over itself, without any interference from outside sources or bodies.
Territorial Morphology
- Relationship between a state's geographic shape, size, relative location, and it's political situation.
Borders
Border Disputes
Types of boundries
Geometric
- a straight-line border that isn't based of the physical or cultural features of a place
Physical/natural
- a boundary like a mountain range or river that naturally divides two places
Ocean
- boundaries that determine who rules the oceans
UNCLOS Treaty
Territorial waters
- the area up to 12 miles of the coast of a country to which the country has total sovereignty over
Contiguous zone
- the area from 12 to 24 miles of the coast of a country within which a country can exert limited control for the purpose of preventing or punishing "infringement of its customs, fiscal, immigration or sanitary laws and regulations within its territory or territorial sea"
Exclusive Economic Zone
- the 200 miles of water off a country's coast to which the country claims exclusive rights for fishing, drilling, and other economic activities.
International waters
- the waters further than 200 miles off the coast of any country in which no country can claim rights to or exert control over
Median-line principle
- a principle in the UNCLOS Treaty stating that when two countries don't have enough water between them to each have the full 200 miles of Exclusive Economic Zone, they will evenly divide up the ocean territory between them
Push/pull factors
- factors that either push or pull people into migration to a certain place
Refugee
- a person who has been forced to leave their country due to something like war, persecution, or a natural disaster
Asylum
- the protection granted to someone who has left their native country as a refugee
Ecology: Humans and the Enviroment
Geo Basics
Climate v. Weather
- Weather refers to short-term changes in the atmosphere, climate describes what the weather is like over a long period of time in a specific area
GPS
- GPS, which stands for Global Positioning System, is a radio navigation system that allows land, sea, and airborne users to determine their exact location, velocity, and time 24 hours a day, in all weather conditions, anywhere in the world
Absolute location
- an absolute location describes a fixed position that never changes, regardless of your current location. It is identified by specific coordinates, such as latitude and longitude
Relative location
- a relative location is the position of something relative to another landmark. For example, you might say you're 50 miles West of Houston
Pros and cons of the carbon tax
Pros
Provides incentive for reducing carbon emissions
Raises revenue which can be spent on reversing the effects of climate change
Reduces environmental costs associated with excess carbon pollution
Pushes polluters towards finding alternate, clean sources of energy
Theoretically, with the implementation of a carbon tax, other taxes, such as payroll tax, could be reduced to accommodate for it
Cons
Businesses claim higher tax can discourage investment and economic growth
May encourage tax evasion
Can be difficult to measure external costs and how much the tax should be
Administration costs in measuring pollution and collecting tax
Firms may shift production to countries without carbon tax
Features of Africa that disadvantage it
Very large continent
- hard to get across
Sahara desert
- nearly impossible to cross and prevents trade and communication
Poor, shallow natural ports
- prevents overseas trade and exploration
Thick jungle
- Again, prevents communication, trade, and travel
Mosquito-friendly environment
- huge outbreaks of disease
Modern day weird, colonial-drawn borders
- lots of internal wars over borders and borders that don't make sense, hugely disadvantaging countires
Long, skinny continent
- different climates in different parts of the countries, preventing universal development
No domesticated animals
- prevents transport on animals, help from animals for farming, and use of animals as a food source
Poor land for farming/no reliable food source
- prevents development of new technology because all efforts are going towards not starving
Useless rivers
Divide up the continent, preventing spread of ideas, and the rivers are useless for trade and travel because they are too short or end in steep waterfall dropoffs
Rich in resources like rare ores
- those resources are only valuable for trade, not for making useful things out of them. Africa had no trade, so they couldn't put their resources to good use and later, colonists wanted to take over Africa for their rich resources
5 factors that affect the climate
Orographic Effect
- the phenomenon of warm water being blown on land and instantly hitting mountains, creating tons of rain and rain clouds. When the cloud hits the top, it is drained of its moisture. It then heads down the other side of the mountain, making that side have a "rain shadow", which makes that side super hot and dry.
Latitude
- as latitude increases, the average annual temperaturedecreases
Closeness to large bodies of water
- water moderates the temperature. Cooler summers, warmer winters
Elevation
- for every 1,000 feet you go up, you lose around 3 degrees Fahrenheit in temperature
Ocean currents
- warm ocean currents can heat up the climate and cold ones can cool it down
Demography/Population Patterns
Migration
Refugee
- a person who has been forced to leave their country due to something like war, persecution, or a natural disaster
Asylum
- the protection granted to someone who has left their native country as a refugee
Ethnonationalism
- a sense of shared heritage due to things like shared faith, language, traditions or ethnic ancestry
Push/pull factors
- factors that either push or pull people into migration to a certain place
Population Statistics
Population Density
Rate of Natural Increase
- RNI = (birth rate - death rate) divided by 10
Crude birth rate
- (number of live births divided by total population) x 1,000
Death rate
- CDR = (# Deaths divided by total population) x 100
Life expectancy
Total fertility rate
- TFR estimates the average number of children born to each female of birthing age (ages 15 to 45). TFR = number of children born divided by number of women aged 15 to 45
Infant mortality rate
Demographic Transition Model
- The Demographic Transition Model (DTM) is based on historical population trends of two demographic characteristics – birth rate and death rate – to suggest that a country's total population growth rate cycles through stages as that country develops economically.
Stage 1
- both birth rates and death rates are high. There are no countries today in Stage 1, as Stage 1 is the poorest of the poor. Stage 1 countries have no medicine, no access to contraception, poor education, famine, high infant mortality rates, and disease.
Stage 2
- in Stage 2, the introduction of modern medicine lowers death rates, especially among children, while birth rates remain high; the result is rapid population growth. Many of the least developed countries today are in Stage 2. Stage 2 countries may still face many problems from Stage 1, such as famine, lack of contraception, and lack of education.
Stage 3
- In Stage 3, birth rates gradually decrease, usually as a result of improved economic conditions, an increase in women’s status, and access to contraception. Population growth continues, but at a lower rate. Most developing countries are in Stage 3.
Stage 4
- In Stage 4, birth and death rates are both low, stabilizing the population. These countries tend to have stronger economies, higher levels of education, better healthcare, a higher proportion of working women, and a fertility rate hovering around two children per woman. Most developed countries are in Stage 4.
Population pyramids
- a pyramid-shaped graph that has the place and year and is divided down the middle by gender and age range. It shows the population by gender and age for a particular place at a particular time. A group of people the same age is a cohort- each bar is a cohort
Slow/stable growth
- the pyramid is fairly even all the way through and ideally is close to the shape of a cylinder with a slightly smaller base and slightly smaller top. This indicates ideal birth rates (2.5 children per woman), high life expectancy, and a large working age population.
Rapid growth
- the pyramid usually has a wide base and a small top. This indicates a huge birth rate, a high infant mortality rate, and low life expectancy. Countries with a pyramid shaped like this are usually poor and underdeveloped
Negative/declining growth
- the pyramid is usually top heavy and has a small base. This indicates a low birth rate and high life expectancy. A good example of a country with declining growth is Japan.
Dependency Ratio
DR = % non-workers divided by % workers
how to find the percent of non-workers and the percent of workers
- (% under 15 years old and % 65 years and older divided by % 15-64 years old) x 100
Doubling time
- how long it would take for a country to double in size. Doubling time = 70 divided by rate of natural increase