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Course Mind Map (Internal factors of plants, External factors of plants),…

- - - - Opposite of Gluconeogenesis
      - Substrate-level phosphorylation
        
        Net of 2 ATP per Glucose
        
        1,3-diphosphoglycerate--> 3-phosphoglycerate
        
        NADH produced
        
        Used to metabolize NO3 and SO3
        
        NAD+ must be regenerated or cell death occurs
        
        Pyruvate as electron acceptor to regenerate NAD+
        
        Lactic Acid formation (toxic)
        
        In Plants/Fungi: Pyruvate->Acetylaldehyde->Lactate
        
        Electron carrier/Reducing agent
      - ADP recycled from other metabolic functions
    - - Earth's Atmosphere (but old)
        
        Pyruvate and acetylaldehyde used as electron acceptors #
        
        Rich in Reduced Hydrogen-rich compounds
        
        Oxygen poor
        
        Aerobic respiration evolved after oxygen became abundant
        
        Allows organisms to survive in extreme environments
        
        Lithotrophs
    - - Autotrophs
        
        Photoautotrophs
      - Heterotrophs
        
        Conventional heterotrophs
        
        Photoheterotrophs
      - Lithotrophs
        
        Lithotrophic autotrophs
        
        Lithotrophic heterotrophs
  - - - Lost energy in Respiration--> Heat
      - Homeostasis
      - Shivering when cold
    - - Plants
        
        Vaporization of Amines to attract pollinators (Voodoo Lily)
        
        Melting snow during floral development (Skunk cabbage)
        
        Cyanide, Azide, and Carbon Monoxide resistant #
    - - Alternative electron carriers
      - No proton gradient=no production of ATP
        
        NADH energy-->heat
  - - - Transformation of Glucose
        
        Erythrose (4C sugar)
        
        Lignin
        
        Wood
        
        Fibers
        
        Sclereid Deposits
        
        Anthocyanin pigments
        
        Flower petals
        
        Brightly colored fruits
        
        Ribose (5C sugar)
        
        Nucleic-Acid metabolism
        
        Meristematic Cells
        
        Essential monomers in many pathways
      - Production of NADPH
        
        Nitrate Reduction
        
        Amino Acids
  - - - Germination
      - Glycerol phosphate
      - Glycerol
      - Triglycerides
      - Fatty acids
        
        B-Oxidation
        
        Acetyl CoA #
        
        Carbohydrate synthesis
        
        Citric-Acid Cycle
        
        Glycosomes
        
        FADH2 production
        
        NADH production
  - - - Glycolate-->Glycine
        
        Glycine-->Serine
  - - - Embden-Meyerhoff pathway
        
        NADH oxidized back to NAD+
        
        Glycolysis continues
    - - Citric-Acid Cycle Video
      - Important molecules
        
        1 Acetly-CoA produces...
        
        3 NADH
        
        1 FAD/FADH2
        
        1 ATP
      - Provides Intermediates for ETC #
    - - Mitochondrial inner membrane
        
        Contains compounds for carrying electrons
        
        Flavin mononucleotide (FMN)
        
        Ubiquinone (CO Q)
        
        Cytochrome oxidase
        
        High selective permeability
      - Chemiosmotic Phosphorylation
        
        Proton pump
        
        ATP synthetase
        
        H2O produced
        
        Proton concentration gradient
      - NADH Shuttle
        
        NADH produced by glycolysis cannot cross mitochondrial inner membrane
        
        Malate-Aspartate Shuttle
        
        Oxaloacetate-->Malate
        
        1 Cytosolic NADH-->1 Matrix NADH
        
        3 ADPs--> 3 ATPs
        
        Glycerol-Phosphate shuttle
        
        NADH + DHA-->Glycerol Phosphate + NAD+ (Cytosol)
        
        FAD + Glycerol Phosphate--> DHA + FADH2 (Matrix)
        
        NADH exchanged for FADH2
- - - - Limited by Oxygen infusion rate in tissues
    - - Enzyme damage
      - Disruption of organelle membranes
  - - - 1-2% O2=Full respiration rate
      - Oxygen diffusion is good in plants even at night
      - Root access to O2 varies
        
        Competition from other organisms
        
        Rain may displace O2 in soil
        
        Hypoxia
        
        Anoxia
        
        Anaerobic respiration allows roots to survive for short duration w/out O2 #
  - - - Active metabolism=higher rates of respiration
        
        Glands
        
        Epidermal cells
      - Fruit maturation-->Steady until just before fruit is mature
        
        Endocrine signaling
        
        Greatly increased RR
      - Seeds
        
        Extremely low RR for fertilized embryo
        
        Dormant period
- - - - 4 ATP synthesized
      - 2 ATP used to recapitulate glycolysis
      - 2 ATP net yield
    - - 2 ATP produced from glycolysis
      - Intermediate Step:
        
        NAD+ Pyruvate--> Acetyl-CoA +NADH
        
        1 Glucose--> 2 pyruvates
        
        1 NADH-->2 ATP
        
        4-6 ATP produced per Glucose molecule
        
        Glucose-6-phosphate= 6 ATP
        
        Glucose=4 ATP
  - - - 2 ATP
      - 6 NADH
      - 2 FADH
      - Anaerobic Respiration: 24 ATP net yield
      - Aerobic Respiration: 38 ATP net yield
  - - - 2 NADPH yield
    - - 6 NADPH yield
  - - - Factors
        
        Length of fatty acid chain
        
        Acetyl CoA entering Citric-Acid Cycle
        
        Abstraction of intermediates--> Lower ATP yield
      - Ideally
        
        40% of energy in fatty acid---> ATP
      - No ATP produced
        
        Thermogenic respiration
        
        Photorespiration
  - - - Acids
        
        RQ>1.0
        
        Oxygen rich structure= easily oxidized to produce CO2 + H2O
        
        Production of NADH for ETC
      - Availability of reagents
      - Lipid metabolism
        
        Contain virtually no O2
        
        RQ<1.0
        
        Often near 0.7
- - - - [EtOH]>18% kills yeast
      - Distillation allows for stronger conc. of EtOH
  - - - Barley
        
        Greatest # of enzymes
        
        Fast conversion of starch to sugar
        
        Malt
      - Wheat
        
        Popular
      - Corn
      - Rice
        
        Sake
        
        Much stronger than beer
      - Germination of grains necessary
  - - - Typically around 12-14% EtOH content
    - - Chardonnay
      - Pinot Noir
      - Cabernet Sauvignon
      - Merlot
    - - Produced when yeast attacks exocarps
      - Medicinal benefits (maybe)
        
        Lowers BP
        
        Prolongs life
        
        Anticancer activity
    - - Dry wine = all sugars have been fermented
      - Sweet wine= some sugars remain
  - - - Grain-based
        
        Whiskeys
        
        Vodka
        
        Gin
- - - - Light energy
    - - ADP-->ATP
  - - - Increases the positive charge on an atom
      - Oxidized compounds
        
        Contain oxygen
      - Oxidizing agents
        
        NAD+/NADP+
    - - Reduces positive charge on an atom
      - Reduced carriers
        
        Contain hydrogen
      - Reducing agents
        
        NADH/NADPH
  - - - Cofactor
      - Heme (holds an Fe atom)
      - Integral membrane proteins
        
        Thylakoid membrane
    - - Long hydrocarbon tails=hydrophobic
      - Carry 2 protons and 2 electrons
      - Short distance electron carriers
    - - Copper atom (+2 oxidation state)
      - Loose association with chloroplast membranes
- - - - Electromagnetic spectrum
        
        Photons
        
        Gamma rays
        
        X-Rays
        
        Short wavelengths
        
        Large amounts of energy
        
        Large wavelengths
        
        Low amounts of energy
    - - Pigmnents
        
        Distinctive color
        
        Associated absorbance of respective wavelengths of light
        
        Action spectrum
        
        Photosynthetic pigments
        
        Chlorophyll a
        
        Accessory pigments
        
        Chlorophyll b
        
        B-carotene
        
        Resonance
        
        Antenna complex
        
        Reaction center
        
        Photosynthetic unit
      - Activated pigments
        
        Ground state
        
        Excited states
        
        Fluorescence
    - - p700-->Absorb red light
        
        Fx (Fe4S4)
        
        Ferredoxin
        
        Reduced ferredoxin is a strong reducing agent
        
        Ferredoxin-NADP-Reductase #
        
        NADP-->NADPH
        
        Is oxidized during the process, needs to be reduced for stability and continuity of photosynthetic processes
      - Production of NADPH
    - - Reduction of p700 in photosystem 1 #
      - Backwards process of PS1
      - Plastocyanin donates an electron to p700 #
        
        Oxidized plastocyanin reduced by cytochrome b6/f complex
        
        Cytochrome b6/f reduced by plastoquinone
        
        Carrier Q
        
        Phaeophytin
      - p680
        
        Gets new electrons from H2O
      - Electron Transport Chain
    - - Generated by light reactions
      - Chemiosmotic phosphorylation
        
        ATP synthetase
        
        CF0-CF1 complex
      - Grana(um)
        
        Frets
        
        Stroma
        
        Thylakoid lumen
        
        Enzymes and Electron carriers
        
        Membrane impermeable to protons produced by hydrolysis
        
        protons attached to NADP+ by Ferroxin-NADP-Reductase
      - Noncyclic electron transport
        
        Does not produce enough ATP
        
        Electrons transported to plastoquinones in PS2
        
        Cyclic Electron Transpor
  - - - RuBP
        
        RUBISCO
      - 3-phosphoglycerate
        
        1,3-diphosphoglycerate
        
        Reuced by NADH
        
        PGAL
      - https://study.com/academy/lesson/photosynthesis-ii-the-calvin-benson-cycle-dark-reactions.html
  - - - Anabolism
      - Anabolic reaction
        
        Short term usage:ATP and NADPH
        
        Intermediate-term storage: simple sugars
        
        Long term storage: Starch
    - - Gluconeogenesis
        
        Glucose-6-phosphate
        
        Fructose-1,6-phosphate
        
        Dihydroxyacetone phosphate
      - Amylose
      - Amylopectin
- - - - Colors of wavelengths
    - - Light intensity or brightness
        
        Cloudy v. Sunny day
        
        Time of day
    - - number of hours per day that sunlight is available
  - - - Standard
        
        Excellent for absorbing CO2,
        
        Poor for conserving water
      - Palisade parenchyma above
      - Spongy mesophyll below
- - - - Produces 1 3-phosphoglycerate
        
        Photorespiration
        
        2 molecules of CO2
        
        Extremely Exergonic
        
        Wasteful
        
        Protection from RuBP binding to Oxygen, but costly
        
        30% loss of ATP and NADPH
      - Produces 1 phosphoglycolate
        
        Transported to peroxisomes/lysosomes-->amino acids
      - RuBP evolved during very low atmospheric [O2]
    - - Krenz anatomy
      - PEP carboxylase
        
        PEP carboxylated #
  - - - Succulent Leaves
      - Opening of stomata at night
        
        Coolness of night reduces transpiration
    - - Reduction to malate or other acids
        
        Storage of CO2
        
        Occurs at night
        
        Acids broken down during the day and utilized in C4 metabolism
    - - Prioritization of survival over growth
- - - - 80-100 mm thick
      - 5-10 layers of cellulose microfibrils
    - - Chlorenchyma
        
        Photosynthesis
        
        Elevated [chloroplasts]
      - Glandular cells
        
        Nectar
        
        Fragrances
        
        Mucilage
        
        Elevated [Dictyosomes and ER]
        
        Transformation of Sugars and Minerals
        
        Low [Chloroplasts]
      - Transfer Cells
        
        Mediation of short-distance transport
        
        Large, extensive plasma membrane capable of holding numerous molecular pumps
        
        Increase surface area by having knobs, ridges, and ingrowths on inner surface
        
        Phloem #
  - - - Vining plants
      - Vascular bundles
    - - Collenchyma and Parenchyma work together like Tire and Air Pressure
    - - Usually produced in shoot tips or young petioles
  - - - Conducting Scherenchyma
        
        Isodiametric (cuboidal)
        
        Brittle and inflexible
        
        Forms shells (walnuts, cherry pits, etc.)
        
        Transports water (type of vascular cell)
      - Mechanical sclerenchyma
        
        Long fibers
        
        Strength and Flexibility
        
        Abundant in the wood of most flowering plants
        
        Allows for swaying in wind w/o breaking
        
        Sclereids
        
        Elastic secondary walls
- - - - Where leaves are attached
    - - Leaf axil
        
        Axillary bud
        
        Vegetative bud (grow into a branch)
        
        Floral bud (grow into a flower or group of flowers)
        
        Bud scales
        
        Small, corky, and waxy
        
        Modified leaves that protect delicate organs
        
        Covers axillary buds
        
        Terminal buds
      - Vines have elongated internodes
        
        Allows plant to explore its surroundings
        
        Stolons (runners)
        
        Can form new plants in suitable habitats
    - - Arrangement of leaves on stem
      - Types of Phyllotaxy
        
        Alternate (one per node)
        
        Opposite (two per node)
        
        Decussate (leaves located in four rows)
        
        Whorled (3 or more leaves per node)
        
        Spiral (leaves not aligned with their nearest neighbors)
        
        Most common
        
        Distichous (leaves located in two rows only)
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VHIvzlZlYUo
      - Important so that one leaf does not shade a neighboring leaf
    - - Bulbs (short shoots w/ thick fleshy leaves
        
        Examples
        
        Onions
        
        Daffodils
        
        Garlic
      - Corms
        
        Vertical thick stems
        
        Thin papery leaves
      - Rhizomes
        
        Fleshy horizontal stems
        
        Allow a plant to spread underground
        
        Examples
        
        Bamboo
        
        Irises
        
        Canna lilies
        
        Tubers
        
        Horizontal Rhizomes
        
        Storage of nutrients
        
        Potatoes
- - - - Cutin encrusted outer tangential walls
        
        Multiple layers of Cutin make up the Cuticle
        
        If cuticle is insufficient, a layer of wax may be added
        
        Also inhibit entry of CO2 needed for photosynthesis
    - - 2 guard cells
        
        Special radial arrangement of cellulose materials
        
        Swell by absorbing H20, back walls arch and form opening
      - 1 stomatal pore
      - Opened during the daytime, permitting CO2 to enter the plant
    - - Make it difficult for an animal to land on or chew leaves
      - Shade underlying tissues, by blocking too intense light
      - Exist in multiple sizes and shapes
        
        Most die shortly after formation, leaving cell wall for protection
        
        May act as small secretory glands
        
        Venus Fly Trap
  - - - Xylem
        
        Conducts water and minerals from roots
        
        Cells are dead usually
        
        2 types of conducting cells
        
        Tracheids
        
        Water passed by Tracheids laying side by side and end overlapping
        
        Pits of adjacent tracheids are aligned so that water can pass through (pit pair)
        
        Pit membrane
        
        Friction
        
        Vessel elements
        
        Moves water with less friction than Tracheids
        
        Perforations aligned for adjacent cells for H2O transport
        
        Vessel (stack of vessel elements) have only 1 perforation at either side
        
        Absorb water from parenchymal cells or tracheids
        
        Both are types of slerenchyma
        
        Tracheary element refers to either type of cell
        
        Formation of hollow tubular walls
        
        Primary wall
        
        Permeable to water
        
        Secondary wall
        
        Impermeable to water
        
        Annular thickenings
        
        Large surface area for water movement
        
        small amount of secondary wall, organized as rings
        
        Weak, but Large % of primary wall is available for water movement
        
        Helical thickening
        
        Scalariform Thickening
        
        Reticulate thickening
        
        Circular bordered pits
        
        Strongest and most derived tracheary elements
        
        Virtually all of primary wall is underlain by secondary wall
        
        Weak points reduced by a border of extra wall material around the pit
        
        Cannot conduct water well
      - Phloem
        
        Distributes sugars and minerals
        
        Living cells
        
        Two types of Conducting cells
        
        Sieve cells
        
        Elongate and spindle shaped
        
        Has sieve areas distributed over all its surface
        
        Evolved first
        
        Albuminous cells
        
        Sieve tube members
        
        Sieve areas on the two ends of the cell especially large
        
        Nuclei degenerate but remain alive
        
        Sieve element refers to either of the two cell types
        
        Have only primary walls
        
        Parenchyma cells
        
        Must remain alive to conduct
        
        Sieve pores (enlarged plasmodesmata
        
        1 um
        
        Sieve areas
        
        Pores of adjacent cells must line up
    - - Xylem and Phloem together
        
        Xylem=Primary system
        
        Primary phloem
      - Just interior to the cortex #
      - Arranged in rings and surrounded by the Pith
        
        Pith (region of parenchyma similar to the cortex
      - Collateral
- - - - Subapical meristem
        
        Visible differentiation
        
        Protoxylem
        
        Extensible
        
        Annular or secondary walls
        
        Protoxylem cells dead at maturity
        
        First cells to differentiate for vascular bundles
        
        Metaxylem
        
        Cell differentiate only after all surrounding stem tissues have stopped elongating
        
        Any type of secondary wall is feasible
        
        Metaphloem
        
        Cells differentiate fully
        
        Large sieve areas
        
        Conspicuous companion cells
        
        Protophloem
        
        Cells are extremely short-lived
        
        Never become well-differentiated
      - Primary tissues
        
        Primary growth
        
        Secondary tissues
        
        Secondary Growth
    - - Epidermal cells that are in the early stages of differentiation
      - Provascular tissues
      - Ground meristem
- - - - Reduces surface/volume ratio
      - Water conservation
      - Inside the leaf
        
        Mesophyll contains few air spaces
        
        Reducing internal evaporative surface area
        
        Reduction of water loss thru stomata
  - - - Life cycle of longer than a year
      - Justifies cost of elevated [sclerenchyma] tissue
      - Resistant to UV light, freezing, fungi, etc.
  - - - Replaced with closely packed fibers, which die after maturation and are resistant to natural decomposition processes
      - Stem cortex=site of cacti photosynthetsis, so loss of palisade mesophyll is not bad
  - - - Composed of large chlorophyllous cells
      - Rang of mesophyll cells radiates from vascular bundle and surrounds each bundle sheath
      - Kranz anatomy
  - - - Habitats poor in Nitrates
      - Habitats poor in Ammonias
      - Digestion of insects provides necessary AAs and nucleotides
    - - Venus flytraps
    - - Pitcher leaves of Nepenthes
- - - - Allows Blade to flutter in the wind
      - Prevents overshadowing of leaves
      - No petiole=Sessile leaf
        
        Sheathing leaf Base
  - - - Greater percentage of simple leaf plants require less support and more photosynthetic action
    - - Contains many leaflets
      - Leaflets attached by petiolule
      - Petiolule attached to petiole by Rachis
      - Pinnately vs. palmately compound
      - Compound leaves are better than simple
  - - - Leaf scar
      - Necessary to prevent infection
      - Similar to the function of a harmonic scalpel in surgery vs, normal scalpel
- - - - Main photosynthetic tissue of most plants
      - Targeted separation of palisade cells for light exposure
      - Generally only 1 layers thick, intense sunlight may merit 3-4 layers
    - - lower portion of leaf
      - Open, loose aerenchyma
        
        Permits rapid CO2 diffusion away from stomata into leaf interior
  - - - Lateral veins---> Minor veins
        
        Minor veins release water from xylem and load sugar into phloem
        
        Lateral veins and midrib mostly involved in conudction
      - Primary xylem on upper side
      - Primary phloem on lower side
    - - Fibers arranged around vascular tissues
      - Support and protection
      - Bundle sheath extension
  - - - Epidermis contains fewer stomata and trichomes, but otherwise similar to the lamina
      - Petiole mesophyll is cortex-like
      - Vascular tissues are the most variable
        
        Leaf traces
        
        May remain distinct or may fuse into a single trace
    - - Two small flaps of tissue at petiole base
      - Protection of apical meristem
      - Photosynthetic contribution occasionally
- - - - Extends upwards as a narrrow cone taller than the shoot apical meristem
      - primordium consists of leaf protoderm and leaf ground meristem
      - All cells are meristematic
      - Provascular tissue
        
        Primary xylem and phloem
    - - Stomata, trichomes, and vascular bundles differentiation
      - Petiole becomes distinct from the midrib #
      - Entire pattern is completed while the leaf is very small
  - - - One side=lamina
      - Abaxial epidermis
      - Adaxial epidermis
      - Perpetual cycle of tubular growth, with one side differentiating into functional tissue types.
    - - Protoxylem and protophloem stretched and disrupted in basal meristem
      - Necessary rapid differentiation of vessel elements and sieve tube members
- - - - 140-462 um (dicots)
      - 700-8,700 um (conifers
    - - Periclinal wall
      - 2 elongate cell
        
        One contiues to be a fusiform initial
        
        One differentiates into secondary vascular tissue
  - - - Outer ---> Xylem parenchyma
      - Inner ----> Phloem Parenchyma
  - - - One cell wide (uniseriate)
      - Two cells wide (Biseriate)
      - Many cells wide (multiseriate)
    - - Regular, horizontal rows (stored cambium); only evolved recently, very rare
      - irregularly, w/out any horizontal pattern (nonstored cambium)
    - - Central fusiform initials may elongate to differentiate into a ray initial, and vice versa, to restore the ray:fusiform ratio
- - - - All cells formed to the interior of the vascular cambium
      - Referred to as Wood
      - Contents
        
        All of the types of cells that occur in primary xylem, but no new ones
        
        Tracheid, vessel elements, fibers, sclereids, and parenchyma
        
        Difference between primary and secondary xylem is in the origin and arrangement of cells
        
        Arrangement of 2nd xylem reflects that of fusiform and ray initials
        
        Axial system is derived from Fusiform initials
        
        Contains tracheary elements --->Longitudinal conduction of water through the wood
        
        In many species of woody angiosperms, fibers give strength and flexibility to the wood
        
        Hardwoods
        
        Useful in construction industry
        
        Conifers and such that do not have these fibers, referred to as Softwoods
        
        Axial xylem parenchyma
        
        Important as temporary reservoir of water
        
        Many desert plants have an abundance of axial xylem parenchyma
        
        Radial system develops from Ray initials
        
        Simple
        
        2 cell types
        
        2 more items...
        
        In woody angiosperms, contains only parenchyma, which form rays
        
        Storage of carbs and other nutrients in dormancy
        
        Conduction of material over short distances radially within wood
        
        Ray tracheids
        
        Page 196 in textbook has great Pics of Wood in 3D
  - - - High proportion of wide vessels
    - - Thickened cuticle
      - Less transpiration
    - - Example
  - - - Conduction up and down the stem/root
      - Sieve tube members and companion cells
    - - Same size, shape, and number of xylem rays
- - - - Phellogen
      - After each division, the inner cell remains as cambium and the outer cell differentiates into Phellem
      - Periderm
        
        Cork Cambium
        
        Layers of Phellem
        
        Phelloderm
      - Typically short-lived
    - - All tissues outside the innermost cork cambium
      - Impermeable to water
    - - All secondary phloem between the vascular cambium and the innermost cork cambium
  - - - Lenticels
        
        Inner and outer lenticels are aligned
        
        Permits diffusion of oxygen throughout the bark
  - - - Epidermis
      - Cortex
      - Primary or Secondary Phloem
- - - - 2 sectors of the cambium are very active
      - Results in a thin, flat, woody ribbon
      - Flexibility and conducting capacity increased
  - - - Palm trunk is all primary tissue consisting of vascular bundles distributed throughout ground tissue
      - The trunk is hard and "woody" bc each vascular bundle is enclosed in a sheath of strong, heavy fibers
      - Production of numerous adventitious roots early on plus widening of trunk
        
        Establishment growth
- - - - Mitotically inactive portion of Apical Meristem
      - Resistant to various harmful agents- radiation, toxins, etc.
      - Reserve of healthy cells, can replenish or replace damaged portions of the Root Apical Meristem
  - - - Differentiate into Epidermis
    - - Differentiate into primary xylem/phloem
        
        Protoxylem/Protophloem form earliest=closest to meristem
        
        Farther from root tip, older/larger cells develop into metaxylem and metaphloem
    - - Differentiates into the Root Cortex
  - - - Root hairs grow outward (absorption of H2O and minerals)
      - Cortex cells continue to enlarge(transfer of minerals from epidermis to vascular tissue)
        
        Apoplastic transport
        
        Symplastic transport
    - - Innermost layer of cortical cells form a cylindrical shape
      - Radial walls of the endodermis
        
        Encrusted with Lignen and Suberin
        
        Waterproof
        
        Top, Bottom, and Side walls
        
        Casparian Strips #
        
        Acts as a filter for water entering the xylem stream
        
        Impermeable to minerals, protoplasts must intentionally absorb minerals and carry them across Casparian Strip
        
        Many glands and secretory cavities also have Casparian Strips
    - - Many tissues of the metaxylem/metaphloem become fully differentiated and functional
      - Arrangement of vascular tissues is different than that in stems
        
        Xylem as solid mass in center, surrounded by strands of phloem
        
        No pith present
        
        Within the xylem
        
        Inner wide cells=metaxylem
        
        Outer narrow cells= protoxylem (#of strands=#phloem strands)
        
        Phloem
        
        Protophloem occurs on the outer side
        
        Metaphloem occurs on the inner side
    - - Lateral roots initiated here
      - In between vascular tissue and endodermis
      - Parenchyma cells
  - - - Represent passageways for the absorption of materials
      - Formed by an irregular process of lignen and suberin accumulation
    - - Caused by absorption of materials in the root hair zone
      - Extremely important
- - - - Beets, Carrots, and Celery
  - - - Roots dangle frely in the air
  - - - Brings the base of the shoot to soil level
  - - - Ectomycorrhizal relationship
        
        Fungal hyphae penetrate between the outermost root cortex cells, but never invade the actual cells
      - Endomycorrhizal association
        
        Fungal hyphae penetrate the root cortex as far as the endodermis, but not past the Casparian strip
        
        Arbuscule, provides plant with phosphorus
  - - - Rhizobium has a symbiotic relationship with a small number of plants, especially legumes
        
        Infection thread
        
        Root nodule
        
        Bacteria infects the plant cell cytoplasm, and fills the plant cells with bacteroids capable of converting N2 into nitrogenous compounds that are released to the plant cell
- - - - Fibrous root system
        
        radicle dies during or immediately after germination
        
        root primordia at base of radicle produce adventitious roots
        
        Adventitious roots increase absorptive and transport capacities of the root system
    - - Develops from the radicle
    - - Monocots cannot undergo secondary growth, so Fibrous root system is better for them
      - Eudicots undergo secondary growth in root and stems, allowing the utilization of taproot system
  - - - Region where growth in length occurs
      - Root Apical Meristem
        
        Protected by the Root Cap
        
        Dictysomes produce mucigel
        
        Lubricates passage of root through soil
      - Zone of elongation
        
        Behind the root cap and root apical meristem
        
        Cells undergo division and expansion
        
        Root hair zone
        
        Root hairs
        
        Increase roots surface area
        
        Cant enter crevices and extract water
        
        Carbonic acid produced consequent of root hair respiration helps to break down ions in the soil matrix
- - - - Apical meristem pushes outward
        
        Destroys cells of the cortex and epidermis in its way
        
        Lateral root has root cap, first protoxylem/protophloem are connnected to parent root, when it emerges
      - Root primordium swells into the cortex
        
        Endodermis torn, crushed, or may undergo cell division and form a thin covering over the primordium
- - - - K+ ions actively transported into guard cells to open them
- - - - Freely Permeable
      - Completely impermeable
      - Selectively Permeable
        
        All lipid/protein cell membranes
        
        Aquaporins
  - - - Use energy of ATP to force molecules across a membrane
- - - - Pressure potential
        
        Effect that pressure has on water potential
        
        Measured in MPa
      - Osmotic Potential
        
        Effect that solutes have on water potential
      - Matric potential
        
        Water's adhesion to nondisolved structures
- - - - Sources=sites from which H2O and nutrients are transported
        
        Leaves=dormant sources during summer and spring
        
        Early spring=tubers, corms, wood, and bark parenchyma
        
        Sugars are actively transported into sieve elements
        
        Or in some species
        
        Phloem is loaded by Polymer Trap Mechanism
      - STM/CC complex
        
        Functional unit of loading phloem
        
        Composed of
        
        A conducting cell
        
        One or several companion cells
      - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-b6dvKgWBVY
      - Mass transfer
        
        Photosynthate transported by phloem per hour
        
        Specific mass transfer
      - Sinks
        
        Sites that receive transported phloem sap
        
        Extremely diverse
        
        As quickly as nutrients are loaded at sources, they are unloaded at sinks
      - "Bleeding"
        
        Phloem sap is under pressure, and runs the risk of bleeding if cut
        
        2 Mechanisms exist to clot
        
        P-protein
        
        P-protein plug
        
        Callose
  - - - Cohesion
      - Adhesion
      - Heavy-> requires a lot of energy to lift
    - - Cohesion-tension hypothesis
        
        Transstomatal transpiration
        
        Transcutiicular Transpiration
        
        https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5srixeNEQA8
      - Cavitation #
        
        Breaking of a water column
        
        Embolism=air bubble
        
        Often means that the tracheid or vessel can never conduct again
- - - - One new strand
      - One old strand
      - Ookazaki fragments
      - Replication fork
    - - DNA polymerase (adds bases in 3' direction)
        
        Ligation
      - RNA polymerase
  - - - Point mutation
      - Deletion/Insertion
        
        Insertion Sequences
        
        Transposon
      - Inversion
    - - Mutagen= causative agent of mutations
      - Chemicals
      - UV light
      - X-rays
      - Radiation
    - - Heavily dependent on location and nature of mutation
      - Point mutations and small indels in introns tend to be unimportant
      - Mutations in exons are generally worse, but can be small if occuring in last 2 bases of a codon
      - Wobble effect
    - - Mutations that occur in non-germ line cells
      - Effects only the one organism
      - Not heritable
    - - Are important due to the frequency of mutations and improbability of perfect replication in derived organisms
- - - - Temperature
      - Rainfall
      - Relative humidity
      - Wind
    - - Pioneers=first plant to invade soil, very harsh
      - A Horizon= zone of leaching
      - B Horizon= zone of deposition
      - C Horizon= Parent rock and rock fragments
    - - Day length and seasonal variation
      - Altitude variations
    - - Phenomena that produce a significant, often radical, change in an ecosystem quickly
      - Fires, landslides, snow, avalanches, and floods
  - - - Individuals modify the environment by virtue of their presence and subsequent interactions with ecosystem
    - - Mutualism
      - Competition
        
        Competitive exclusion
        
        Niche
      - Ecotypes
        
        Transplant experiments
        
        Common Garden
  - - - Commensal Relationships
      - Predation
        
        Herbivory
      - Pathogenic Relationships
- - - - Limiting Factor
        
        The factor which most directly determines the health of a plant
        
        Oxygen in photosynthesis
        
        Water
    - - Three types of local distribution
        
        Random distribution
        
        Clumped distributions
        
        Uniform distributions
  - - - Generation time= length of time from the birth of one individual until the birth of its offspring
      - Biotic potential/Intrinsic rate of natural increase
        
        Number of offspring produced by an individual
        
        Represented in population equations as r
        
        Measured under ideal conditions
        
        Carrying capacity
        
        K
        
        Number of individuals that can realistically live in an ecosystem
  - - - A disturbance usually produces r-conditions #
      - r-selected species are usually annuals or small shruby perennials
        
        bc the disturbed habitat gradually changes back into a crowded one that is no longer suitable for the pioneer r species
    - - K-selected species face intense competition from other plant species
      - Adaptations that increase the ability to use scarce resources are beneficial
- - - - Primary producers
        
        Autotrophs
        
        First step of any food web
        
        Energy and nutrient supply for herbivores
      - Primary consumers
        
        Herbivores
        
        Eat the primary producers
        
        Prayed on by
        
        Secondary Consumers
        
        Carnivores
      - Decomposers
        
        Fungi/Bacteria
        
        Recycle valuable materials, i.e; nitrogen, sulfur cycle
    - - Carbon Flow
- - - - A=Area
      - S= number of species
      - c and z are constants that must be discovered
    - - Alpha= number of species that occur at a local small site
      - Beta diversity compares differences between several small sites within a larger region
      - Gamma diversity is the number of species within a region.
    - - https://www.coursera.org/lecture/biological-diversity/4-3-curves-of-biodiversity-Pnyke
- - - - Feeding rate
      - Handling time
      - The sum of these two are referred to as the predator's functional response
        
        Prey- dependent
    - - models the net rate of change in prey numbers
      - dN/dt=rN-aNP
        
        Rate of change with the time of prey population
      - Criticized for being too simplistic
      - Main value is the ability to simplify complex interactions while teaching the fundamentals of predator-prey relationships
      - Paradox of enrichment
        
        Maximum sustained yield
        
        fixed effort harvesting
        
        fixed quota harvesting
      - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DO2aM08WHy0
  - - - Exploitation competition
      - Interference competition
        
        Invasive species
      - Resources
        
        Any substance or factor that can lead to increased growth rates as its availability is increased
- - - - Keystone species
- - - - Microphyle
      - Pollen chamber
      - Similar to angiosperm ovules
- - - - Appeared in the Upper Devonian Period
      - Grade not a clade
      - Any woody plants with fern-like foliage that bore seeds
      - Long lived vascular cambium
      - Tracheids were much longer and wider than angiosperms and gymnosperms
  - - - Long shoots
        
        Tiny papery leaves
      - Short shoots
        
        Needles
    - - Pollen cones are simple cones
      - Seed cones are compound cones with cone bracts and ovuliferous scales
      - Reproductive cycle: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WPfRV8NWkk4
- - - - Protects against oxidative damage by free-radicals
      - Improves vision in gluacoma patients
      - Boosts memory and cognitive functioning
- - - - Gametes
        
        Sperm producing= Male plants
        
        Egg producing= Female plant
        
        Meiosis
        
        Egg + Sperm=Zygote (fertilization)
      - Sporophyte phase/generation
        
        Gametophytes=haploid and produce gametes
        
        Hornworts
        
        Liverworts
        
        Mosses
        
        Gametes formed by mitosis not meiosis
        
        Oogamy
        
        Microgametophytes=Male
        
        Grow from Microspores
        
        Megagametophytes=female
        
        Grow from Megaspores
        
        Heterospory=atypical
        
        Alternation of generations
        
        2 generations
        
        Sporophyte
        
        Gametophyte
        
        Heteromorphic generations
      - Flower Structure
        
        Pedicel=Stalk of Flower
        
        Receptacle=where floral appendages attach
        
        Types of Floral Appendages
        
        Sepals
        
        Modified leaves to protect maturation of other floral appendages
        
        Lowest floral appendage
        
        Tough, thick, and waxy
        
        All sepals combined=Calyx
        
        Petals
        
        Corolla=All of the petals
        
        Perianth=Corolla +Calyx
        
        Contain pigments other than chlorophyll
        
        Thin and Leaf-like
        
        Attract pollinators
        
        Stamens
        
        Adroecium= all stamens
        
        Produce pollen
        
        2 Parts
        
        Filament
        
        Stalk
        
        Anther
        
        Produces pollen
        
        Tapetum
        
        Microsporophyes
        
        Carpels
        
        Highest floral appendage
        
        Composed of 3 parts
        
        1.Stigma=catches pollen
        
        2.Style=Elevates stigma to boost efficacy
        
        3.Ovary=Production of Megaspores (fruit)
        
        Placentae-->Ovules
        
        1 more item...
        
        Development into seed after egg fertilization
        
        Gynocieum
    - - Microgametophyte
        
        Vegetative cell
        
        Generative cell
        
        2 sperm cells
        
        Pollen tube #
        
        Protected and nourished by style tissue
        
        Pollen
      - Megagametophyte
        
        Embryo Sac
        
        7 cells
        
        1 Central Cell (with 2 polar nuclei)
        
        3 antipodal cells
        
        Egg apparatus (2 synergids and an egg)
  - - - Spreading/Vining plants
      - Self-sufficiency by Adventitious roots
      - Image of Fragmentation
  - - - Shed protoplasm
      - Sperm cells
      - Contribution of nuclear genes from sperm (conifers exempt contribute plastids as well)
      - Angiosperms undergo karyogamy c 2 sperm cells-->large triploid endosperm nucleus (double fertilization)
    - - Fusion of the plasma and associated organelles
      - Mitochondrial and Organelle DNA comes from Ovules
    - - Nourish development of Zygote
      - Milk stage: i.e coconut
  - - - Embryo proper
      - Suspensor (pushes zygote into endosperm further)
    - - Cotyledons
        
        Dicot
        
        Monocot
    - - Radicle
      - Epicotyl
      - Hypocotyl
    - - Albuminous seed
      - Exalbuminous
  - - - Exocarp(skin/peel)
        
        Pericarp
      - Mesocarp (flesh)
      - Endocarp (pit)
- - - - Incompatibility genes
      - Inbreeding
  - - - Stamens
      - Carpels
      - Perfect flower
      - Non-essential organs
        
        Sepals and Petals
        
        Do not produce spores
    - - Have species that only produce Staminate or only Carpellate flowers
      - Examples
        
        Marijuana
        
        Dates
        
        Willows
        
        papaya
      - Life cycle consists of 4 types of plants
        
        Microgamatephytes
        
        Megagametophytes
        
        Staminate sporophytes
        
        Carpellate sporophytes
    - - Staminate flowers on the same plant as carpellate flowers
      - Examples
        
        Cattails
        
        Corn
- - - - Determinate infloroscenes
        
        Limited potential for growth
      - Indeterminate Infloroscenes
        
        Lowest or outermost flower always opens first
        
        Continuous cycles of initiation, maturation, and opening all at once at different portions of the flower
- - - - Contain only ovarian tissue
    - - Partially nonovarian tissue
      - Apples
    - - Developed from a single ovary or fused ovaries of one flower
    - - All of the individual fruits of an infloescene fuse into one fruit=multiple fruit
      - Figs
      - Raspberries
  - - - Dehiscent fruits
      - Indehiscent fruits
- - - - Existing alleles decrease in frequency
      - New alleles increase in frequency
      - Only method to introduce a new allele into a population, besides inter-population breeding
    - - Events to which an organism cannot adapt
      - Allele frequencies within impact zone are eliminated
      - Bottle-necking effect
      - Examples
        
        Volcanic Eruption
        
        Floods
        
        Droughts
        
        Hailstorms
    - - Humans purposefully change allele frequency of a gene pool
      - Often carried out in conjunction with artificial mutation
      - Selective breeding of crop plants, domestic animals, etc.
    - - The most significant factor causing gene pool changes
      - "Survival of the fittest"
      - Two conditions must be met
        
        More offspring than can survive to maturity
        
        Progeny must differ from each other in their allele types
      - Factors that Are Not Part of Natural Selection
        
        Purpose
        
        Intention
        
        Planning
        
        Voluntary decision making
- - - - New beneficial alleles are selected for and spread throughout the population #
        
        Gene Flow
      - Pollen Transfer
      - Seed Dispersal
      - Vegetative Propagation
    - - If gene flow is not homogeneous
      - Reproductive isolation
        
        Abiological reproductive barrier
        
        Results in
        
        Allopatric/geographic speciation
        
        Physical and topographical barriers
        
        Biological Reproductive Barriers
        
        Any biological phenomenon that prevents successful gene flow
        
        Sympatric speciation
        
        Prezygotic isolation mechanisms
        
        Postzygotic internal isolation barriers
        
        Hybrid sterility
        
        Hybrid inviability
      - Adaptive Radiation
        
        Species rapidly diverges into many new species over an extremely short period of time
        
        Examples: Hawaiian and Galapagos Islands
        
        All offspring greatly resemble the founder individuals
        
        Genetic drift is the erratic change in a gene pool caused by accidents or disasters #
    - - Two distinct, unrelated phenotypes occupy the same/similar habitats
      - Evolution to the point that the species closely resemble each other
      - Evolutionary convergence of cacti and euphorbias
- - - - First atmosphere was mostly hydrogen
      - Second atmosphere
        
        H2S
        
        NH3
        
        CH4
        
        H2O
        
        Reducing atmosphere due to the lack of Molecular oxygen and presence of powerful reducing agents
    - - Intense UV and Gamma radiation
      - Heat
      - Electricity
      - Volcanic lightning
    - - Chemosynthetic origin of life basically had no time limit
      - Oceans= primordial soup
      - Due to lack of molecular oxygen as oxidizing agent to breakdown primodial compounds
- - - - Hepatophyta: Liverworts
      - Bryophyta: Mosses
      - Anthocerotophyta: Hornworts
- - - - Gametophores grow from an apical meristem that contains a prominent apical cell.
        
        Leaves are aligned in three rows at least while young, and most have a midrib (costa)
        
        Leaves are only one cell thick except at midrib and along margins
        
        Cuticle occurs only on the upper surface of most moss leaves
        
        No stomata occur on the leaves, because they would be useless
      - Moss stems are always slender and have little tissue differentiation
      - Leafy stems (gametophores) grow close together and form dense mounds. Some are looser than others, and some even grow in ribbons
    - - Hydroids
        
        Cells in the innermost cortex
        
        Conduct water and dissolved minerals
        
        Elongated cells, lose cytoplasm after maturation
        
        Each hyroid is lined up one on top of the other
      - Leptoids
        
        Resemble sieve cells
        
        Elongated, interconnected with adjacent cells
        
        Lack nuclei upon maturation with retention of cytoplasm
      - Majority of mosses lack hydroids and leptoids
        
        Water is conducted along exterior of stems by capillary action
        
        Sugar is moved simply between parenchyma cells by slow transport
      - Rhizoids
        
        Small, multicellular trichome-like structures
        
        Located at the base of the stem
        
        Support, no absorption
    - - Growth of gametophore occurs via the creation of a protonema
      - Protoenmata are perennial and can grow extensively
    - - All mosses are oogamous
        
        Sperms are produced by antheridia
        
        Eggs occur in archegonia
      - Gametaphore produce gametangia
  - - - Foot= interface with gametophore; absorption
      - Capsule= simple apical sporangium
      - Set: a narrow stalk in between the foot and sporangium
      - Operculum: apex of sporangium differentiates into a caplike lid, the operculum
      - Perisome teeth: rows of bueatiful, complex teeth created from the operculum
      - Calyptra: Apex of the sporangium in many species
  - - - Mosses exist in moist habitats or microhabitats
- - - - Sporangia were lateral, not terminal
      - Sporangia open tranversely along the top edge
      - Xylem was an exarch protostele
    - - Enations
- - - - Distinguished from Lycopodium by presence of the ligule
- - - - Telomes
      - Planation
      - Webbing
      - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dH2e7Nam-D4