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Course Mindmap (Thanks for an awesome semester! :smiley:), Respiration…
Course Mindmap
Thanks for an awesome semester! :smiley:
Respiration
Alcohol
sugar
yeast
beer
starch
barley
rice
corn
wine
fruit
grapes
champagne
juice
fermentation
#
spirits
ethanol
20%
distilled
vodka
gin
whiskey
depressant
harmful
addictive
BAC
.02%
impaired
0.15
drunk
.4%
fatal
60-90 minutes
poisonous
detoxify
pentose phosphate pathway
intermediate
fundamental compounds
glucose
transformed
NADPH
meristematic cell
large amounts DNA synthesized
pigments
anthocyanin
lignin
tissues
wood
fiber
sclereids
differentiation
Basic reactions
electron donors
hydrogen respiration
produce ATP
electron acceptors
Nitrate
NO2
N2
Sulfate
hydrogen sulfide
integrated metabolism
autotrophs
energy to reduce co2
plants
heterotrophs
#
#
reduced carbon
growth and reproduction
calvin cycle
photoautotrophs
bacteia
photoheterotrophs
organic substances
conventional heterotrophs
Thermogenic respiration
cyanide
cyanide resistant
no high conc
least confusing
resistant to cold
survive stress conditions
rare
photorespiration
glycine
ATP
NADH
30% energy waste
anaerobic
fermentation
no oxygen
removed all energy
obligate
killed by O2
glycoloysis
Embden-Meyerhoff pathway
gluconeogenisis
ATP
#
substrate-level phosphorylation
kinases
4 generated 2 consumed
protein synthesis
nucleic acid replication
microtubule assembly
ion transport
NADH
Ethanol
toxic
lactate
Environmental Factors
Temperature
great influence
10C+ 2x respiration
lack of O2
1% to 2%
internal regulation
aerobic
require oxygen
obligate/strict
animals
plants
absorbed
21%
carbon dioxide
lithotrophs
lithotrophic autotrophs
iron bacteria
sulfur bateria
lithotropphic heterotrophs
#
bacteria
lack calvin and no CO2
#
famine
3 parts
citric acid cycle
pyruvate
transported
acetyl
Krebs Cycle
tricarboxylic acid cycle
Hans Krebs
coA
acetyl CoA
acceptor molecule
oxaloacetate
4 carbons
6 carbons
citrate
1 more item...
malate
carrier molecule
NAD
NADH
oxidative phosphorylation ETC
Flavin mononucleotide
cofactor
reduced
ubiquinone
co enzyme Q
cytochrome oxidase
synthesize atp
gycolysis
#
initial steps
produce ATP
#
produce NADH
occurs in
cytostol
plastids
NADH Shuttle
cannot cross membrane
malate
converted to apartate
repeat cycle
cannot donate eletrons
carries reducing power
heat loss
Lipids
tissues
oily seeds
dormant apical meristems
B-oxidation
golyoxysomes
FAD
CoA
Energy Metabolism
Photosynthesis
#
uses high energy
#
CO2
#
carbon
#
Stroma reactions
dark
carbohydrates
light dependent reactions
#
#
NADPH
"thylakoid reactions"
ATP
water
lost
reduce ext surface
photorespiration
C4 metabolsim
CO2 absorbed
PEP
Kranz
RuBP
Malate
mesophyll
pyruvate
19 families
monoclot
hot climate
sorghum
corn
grasses
sugarcane
eudicot
crassulacean acid met
CAM
conv. h2o
#
not efficient
bacteria
lack chlorophyll b
identical to plants othr than
Purple
Green
bactriochlorophylls
reducing power
Reduction reaction
reduces + charge
contain O2
Oxidizing agent
NAD+
NADP+
Oxidation Reaction
increases + charge
contain hydrogen
reducing agents
NADH
NADPH
oxidized
#
Carbon Dioxide
Sulfate
Nitrate
less electrons
Earth 21% O2
photosystem II
NADPH
P700 a
< e-
plastocyanin
#
donates e-
backwards
etc
3 methods in which ADP-ATP
#
Photophosphorylation
Light
#
#
electromagnetic spectrum
x-rays
ultra violet
infared
gamma rays
microwaves
radio
fluorescents
quality
color
wavelength
quanity
brightness
duration
num hours in a day
Substrate-level phosphorylation
high energy
in all parts of the plant
#
oxidative phosphorylation
occurs in chloroplasts in light
All exergonic reactions
photosystem I
P700
RED
Fx
ferredoxin
protein
small
X
powerful reducing agent
#
chlorophyll b
little
Electron carriers
cytochromes
protein
carry electrons between close sites
plastoquinones
hydrophobic
dissolve
transport electrons
#
plastocyanin
protein
carries e- on metal atom
copper
Chloroplasts
ATP synthetase
energy channels
noncyclic e- trans
e- flow h2o-NADPH
thylakoids
frets
grana
liquid
stroma
reactions
Calvin cycle
acceptor molecule
RuBP
#
2 mol formed
RUBISCO
largest
complex
carboxylation
ATP
PGAL
anabolism
complex
build
fat
sugars
AA
nucleic aci
PGAL
#
lumen
proteins
membrane
not permeable to protons
NADP+
H2O breakdown
Energy Carriers
Photosynthesis
Energy enters world
ATP
energy
Seed Plants without Flowers
#
Progymonosperms
develop megaphyllous leaves
Aneurophytales
shrubs to large trees
vascular cambium
secondary growth
primary xylem
protostele
Archaeopteridales
up to 8.4m tall
abundant wood
secondary phloem
reproduction is heterosporous
seeds
integument
#
project upward
microphyle
hole for sperm to swim through
Pteridospermophyta: Seed Ferns
#
#
#
evolved from aneurophytales
xylem and phloem
seed fern wood
manoxylic
soft and less dense
megasporangium
attached integument at base
all extinct
Cycadophyta: Cycads
similar to seed ferns internally
#
tracheids are long and wide
rays are massive
leaves
do not have ovules
seed cones
pollen cones
contain microsporophylls
#
100 species
Coniferophyta: Conifers
wood lacks vessels
phloem
lacks sieve tubes
cones
#
#
pollen
simple cones
bears microsporophylls
#
#
seed
compound
axillary bud
ovuliferous scale
pines
monopodial
wood
#
composed of tracheids
shoot
long shoots
tiny papery leaves occur here
short shoots
long needle leaves
xeromorphic characteristics
Cycadeoidophyta: Cycadeoids
#
almost identical to cycads
however cones contain both
microsporophylls
megasporophylls
Ginkgophyta: Maidenhair Tree
wood
#
like conifers
#
lack vessels and axial parenchyma
leaves
dichotomously branched veins
short and long shoots
reproduction
dioecious
gymnospermous
Gnetophyta
broad leaves
dicot
pollen cones
compound
enigmatic
Gnetum
mostly vines or small shrubs
broad leaves
dicot
Ephedra
#
tough shrubs and bushes
leaves are reduced and scale-like
Welwitschia mirabilis
rare
found only in deserts of south Africa
or cultivation
gymnosperms
#
vessels in wood
Flowers and Reproduction
Sexual
angiosperms
#
flowers
life cycle
sporophytes
diploid (2n)
cells undergo meiosis
#
produces haploid spores
#
spores
mega
#
micro
#
egg
zygote
#
megagametes
sperm
microgametes
gametophyte
microgametophyte
#
megagametophyte
#
cross pollination
cross-pollination
#
pollination of a carpel by pollen from a different indiv.
genetic diveristy
self-pollination
pollination of same indiv
self-fertilization
in flowers that have both
is prevented
anther
stigma
compatibility barriers
prevent pollen growth
Asexual
fragmentation
large spreading of plant grows out
angiosperms
numerous methods
Flower structure
pedicel
flower stalk
end of axis is the receptacle
floral appendages
petals
above sepal
#
together make the corolla
perianth
leaf-like
stamens
above the petals
#
androecium
produce pollen
in the anther
#
sepals
lowermost and outermost
modified
protect flower bud
all together are the calyx
carpels
gynoecium
three main parts
style
elevates stigma position
ovary
#
megaspores produced
#
placentae
ovules
nucellus in center
stigma
catches pollen grains
#
complete flowers
#
fruit types seed dispersal
#
true fruit
contains only ovary tissue
accessory fruit
nonovarian tissue present
false fruit
Simple fruit
most common
develops from one ovary
aggregate fruit
separate carpels from one gynoecium fuse
classifying
dry or fleshy
dehiscent or indehiscent
Genetics
Monohybrid Crosses
sexual reproduction
cross
#
single character is analyzed
other inheritance not considered
parental generation
parents
F1 (First Filial generation)
offspring of crossbreeding
interbreed
F2 generation
homozygous
2 identical alleles for gene
HH
Heterozygous
2 different alleles for gene
Hh
incomplete dominance
neither parental trait dominates
own pollen to fertilize own eggs
"Selfing"
can also be done with another plant of same genotype
punnet square
understand results of cross
Test cross
complete dominance
pure-bred lines
multiple alleles
polymorphic
3:1
Dihybrid Crosses
2 genes are studied
position of gene on chromosome
independent assortment
#
2 genes on a separate chrom.
alleles of one gene move independently of the other
9:3:3:1
crossing over
two genes are located far apart on same chromo.
greater the possibility for crossing over to occur
prophase 1
recombinant chromosomes
last two
parental type chromosomes
first two
Mutations
#
#
mutagen
chemicals
UV
X-ray
radiations
many are man-made
any change no matter how large or small in DNA
smallest change
point mutation
single base converted to another base
piece of DNA lost
deletion
short regions of self-comp. sequence
Transposable elements
insertion sequences
few thousand bp long
transposons
longer and carries genes code for proteins not assoc. with transposition
addition of extra DNA
insertion
put backwards after repair
inversion
effects
spacer dna between two genes
no effect
in exon
gene code for protein whose AS is disrupted
protein cannot function
insertion
#
gene code for protein so long
cannot fold properly
promoter regions
can inactive gene
point mutation
#
could cause formation of new start codon
always harmful
Somatic
non sex-cells
might never result in an altered phenotype
Replication of DNA
forms bubble
"Replicon"
Primer RNA
10 nucleotides long
substrate for
DNA polymerase
adds deoxyribonucleotides to 3' end
semiconservative replication
#
chromosome
#
#
#
#
single dna double helix
as dna uncoils
replication fork
now each piece is ligated
covalent bonds
multiple genes
epistasis
multiple genes for each trait
quantitative trait loci
complex crosses
pleiotropic effects
multiple phenotype effects of one mutation
protein portion phytochrome
afffects all developmental processes
Other Inheritance Aspects
maternal inheritance
biparental inheritance
alleles of bother parents are transmitted equally
uniparental inheritance
sperm cell loses most cytoplasm
only sperm nucleus enters egg
all plastid and mitochondrion genomes come from mother
mitochondrion
hundreds in cells
several circles of DNA
plastid
variegation
pollen parent
ovule parent
lethal alleles
#
can kill when present
recessive
difficult to detect
polyploid
2+ sets of chromosome
can occur by nondisjunciton
paralogs
Nonvascular Plants
Bryophyta: Mosses
#
ubiquitous
occuring in all parts of the world
perennial and thrive within cities
morphology
gametophores
leafy stems
slender and have little tissue differentiation
grow close together
tightly appressed forming dense mounds
not homologous with vascular plants
grow from apical meristem
water transport
inner cortex composed of
hydroids
#
conduct water and dissolved minerals
elongated
leptoids
resemble sieve cells
most mosses lack hydroids and leptoids
conducted by capillary action
growth
undergoes mitosis
protonema
can be distinguished by numerous small chloroplasts
produces a branched system of similar cells
reproduction
#
produces gametangia
oogamous
small biflagellate sperm cells
produced in antheridia
large nonmotile egg cells
produced in archegonia
divides transversely
moss sporophyte is never independent free-living plant
complex structure
all mosses are homosporous
Hepatophyta: Liverworts
#
small plants
two basic groups
thallose liverworts
#
less resemblence to mosses
flat and ribbon like
body referred to as a thallus
#
without roots, stems, and leaves
#
leafy liverworts
gametangia
#
mixed regular leaves or surrounded by modified leaves
gametophores
#
grows by apical cell
characteristics of oil bodies
bisexual or unisexual
sporophyte
some cells do not undergo mitosis
differentiate into elaters
divides transversely
#
#
nonvascular plants
#
#
#
"bryophytes"
technically embryophytes with no vascular tissue
gametophytes
#
#
#
larger more prominent generation
sporophyte
#
#
#
smaller and temporary
Anthocerotophyta: Hornworts
#
small thalloid plants
presence of single large chloroplast
gametophyte
#
3 or 4 protonema cells produced before gametophore phase established
thin
center is four or five cells thick
fertilization
zygote divides longitudinally
#
sporophyte
foot embedded in gametophore tissue
no seta or discrete sporangium
Community Ecology
Predator-Prey Interactions
one predator one prey
feeding rate
how quickly a predator finds a new prey
functional response
dependent on prey density
"prey-dependent"
faster if more prey available
handling time
#
time needed to consume prey
Lotka-Volterra model
too simplistic
Rosenzeig-MacArthur model
adds more factors
maximum sustained yield
species is stable
fixed effort harvesting
pop health determined by amount of food within effort
healthy pop=abundant harvest
sparse pop=poor harvest
fixed quota harvesting
hunters allowed to harvest a certain amount
ex 1 deer per hunter
predator selection among prey
optimal foraging theory
examine factors
produced a optimal diet model
makes 4 predictions
competition between species
species compete for same resources
exploitation competition
consume a shared resource
interference competition
restricts one's access to resources
Diversity
communities consist of more than one species
measure species richness
count of the species present
"checklist"
national park
wildlife preserve
always incomplete
relationship between are and species richness
species-area relationship
S=cA^z
s=number of species
A=area
c and z are constants
scale matters
larger areas are more diverse than smaller ones
varies with scale
species abundance distribution
varies with latitude
higher latitudes have more severe conditions
Beneficial Int. between species
two organisms interact and both benefit
mutualism
#
mutualistic relationship
both incur a cost
helps another without recieving benefits
facilitation
first organism facilitates the other
also plays a role in succession
primary succession
org become established on newly created substrates
Interconnectedness of species
direct line of consumption
food chain
network of interrelationships
food web
energy flow web
presence or absence of species
keystone species
sea otters
hard to recognize
#
#
Metapop in patchy environments
metapopulation
local pop interconnected by migration and gene flow between patches
has 4 assumptions
high quality patch
source habitat
#
low-quality patch
sink habitat
Population Genetics and Evolution
pop genetics
amount of different alleles in a pop and the way in which they inc, dec, same
tot # of alleles in all gametes in a pop
gene pool
#
#
sex reprod. does not change the gene pool of a pop alone
would remain constant forever with no other factors
10 billion haploid sex cells
#
Factors that cause the gene pool to change
mutation
all genomes subjected to
occur continually
old alleles decrease in frequency
new alleles increase in frequency
accidents
events in which an org cannot adapt
ex. collision of a large meteorite with Earth
many phenomena qualify
can be small or large events
artificial selection
purposely change the allele freq. of a gene pool
selective breeding of crops and animals
gene pool is made up of alleles that have been art. sel. for thousands of years
#
often in conjunction with artificial mutation
#
natural selection
2 conditions before it can occur
progeny must differ from each other in their types of alleles
pop must produce more offspring than can survive
most sign. factor causing gene pool changes
survival of the fittest
most adapted to env suvive
least adapted die
num of ind that can survive in a habitat
pathogens
competitors
predators
differential survival can occur
those that have different phenotypes
Factors that are not part of N.S.
#
Purpose
intention
planning
voluntary decision making
#
#
Speciation
Natural selection causing a new species to evolve.
Occur in 2 ways
divergent speciation
pop evolve into new species
cont. unchanged
evolve into third new species.
if not kept homogeneous throughout entire range
reproductively isolated
abiological reproductive barriers
any physical nonliving feature preventing pop from exchanging genes
allopatric
#
"geographic speciation"
2 or more pop that cannot interbreed
biological reproductive barriers
Any biological phenomenon that prevents successful gene flow
sympatric
#
2 groups become rep. iso. even though they grow together
prezygotic isolation mechanisms
#
#
act before a zygote can be formed
#
postzygotic internal isolation barriers
hybrid sterility
2 pop interbreed or artif. cross-pollinate viable seed
hybrid inviability
zygote or embryo dies early in development
phyletic speciation
gradually becomes so changed
gene flow
#
movement of alleles through space
Seed Dispersal
Pollen Transfer
#
Vegetative Propagation
Evolution
#
Divergent Evolution
numerous types of species possible
Adaptive radiation
species rapidly diverges into new over short time
few million years
can occur in mainland populations if environ. changes suddenly & eliminates the dominant species
all offspring greatly resemble the first
"founder individuals"
initial gene pool is extremely small
genetic drift
if one seed is the founder
the original gene pool consists of two sets of alleles
Convergent Evolution
evolve to he point that they resemble each other strongly
cacti
origin of life
#
#
Chemosynthesis
model using only known chemical and physical processes
rejecting all traces of divine intervention
A. Oparin
J. B. S. Haldane
Conditions on Earth before life
Chemicals present
second atmosphere
replaced the first atm.
release of gases from rock matrix
reducing atm
due to lack of O2 and powerful reducing agents
first atmosphere
mostly lost into space
Energy Sources
sun
UV
gamma radiation
energetic quanta
Heat
electricity
volcanic lightning
Time Available
had no limits
because of lack of free molecular oxygen
#
#
ocean= "dilute soup"
Transport Processes
#
Water Potential
#
free energy
measured in MPa or bars
increased
elevated
increasing pressure
heated
decreased
cooling
reducing pressure
lowering it
pressure pot
#
#
effect of pressure on pot.
h20 under pressure
pressure pot increases
water pot inreases
matric pot
h2o adesion
#
membranes
cell walls
soil particles
decrease free energy
always negative
Short-Distance Intercellular Transport
Symplast
all protoplasm
apoplast
intercellular space
Guard Cells
#
cells surrounding stomatal pores
K+ actively transported into
absorption of K+
H2O Pot
Negative
thrown out of hydraulic equilibrium
when closed
less K+
less positive pressure pot.
motor cells
"joints" of stem or lamina
similar to guard cells
#
K+
Can be expelled
or accumulated
adjusts water pot
example
venus flytrap
located on midrib
Transfer cells
smooth walls
on outer surface
many finger-like and ridge-like outgrowths
inner surface
occurs in
glands that secrete salt
passes nutrients to embryos
sugar goes in or out of phloem
Long-Distance Intercellular Transport: phloem
exact mech not known
pressure flow hypothesis
molecular pumps
active transport
sugars turned into sieve elements
becomes more concentrated
become more negative
water pot
hydraulic disequilibrium
osmotic pot
sources
tranport site of
water
#
nutrients
mass transfer
divided to make
specific mass transfer
polymer trap mech
conducting cell plasma membranes
permeable to
dissacharides
monosaccharides
NOT POLYSACCHARIDES
simple sugars diffuse into cc
companion cells
together make STM/CC complex
sinks
transported phloem sap
P-protein
P-protein plug
callose
polymer
diverse
storage organ
Long-Distance Intercellular Transport: Xylem
Water
adhesive
cohesive
water held in soil
breaking of
hydrogen bonding
water columns
cavitation
powered mainly by water-loss thru atm
cohesion-tension hypothesis
water-loss through stomatal pores
#
transstomatal transpiration
#
transcuticular transpiration
poikilohydry
h2o content changes with habitat moisture
methods
Diffusion
high to low movement
osmosis
3 types
completely impermeable
nothing passes
selectively permeable
certain substances
Freely permeable
all solutes
h2o
#
aquaporins
protein channels
molecular pumps
#
ATP
#
Active transport
#
protein
Structure of Woody Plants
Vascular Cambium
#
Meritstem
produces secondary plant body
must be extended each year
Fascicular cambium
interfascicular cambium
mature parenchyma cells
vascular bundles
resume mitosis
fusiform initials
long, tapered cells
periclinal wall
2 elongated cells
1 fusiform initial and 1 secondary phloem/xyelm
orientation is constant
divide longitudinally
anticlinal walls
increases # of cambial cells
thin primary walls
ray initials
short, cuboidal
periclinal cell divison
#
divides
1 xylem or 1 phloem
1 ray initial
produce storage parenchyma
gymnosperms
#
produce albuminous cells
cambial cells
ray
#
short vertical rows
1 cell wide
2 cell wide
3 cells wide
fusiform
#
horizontal rows
storied cambium
irregular rows
nonstoried cambium
first wood
early wood
spring wood
high proportion of wide vessels
wide tracheids
cuticle not thick
vessels restricted
ring porous
late wood
summer wood
lower proportion of vessels
thick cuticle
1 year=annual ring
growth ring
diffuse porous
vessels throughout
secondary growth occurs
Secondary Xylem
#
"Wood"
#
all cells interior of VC
#
dark wood
center
dry and fragrant
"heartwood"
light wood
moist
outer region
"sapwood"
#
new layer formed each year
Reaction Wood
produced in response to stress
tension wood
contract
top side
compression wood
underside
contains
fibers
vessel elements
schlerids
tracheids
do not function forever in h2o conduction
parenchyma
axial system
fusiform initials
#
tracheary elements
longitudinal conduction of h2o
elongate
"hardwoods"
contain large amounts of fibers
strength and flexibility
basal angiosperms
eudicots
"softwoods"
few to no fibers
conifers
could be harder than "hardwood" in some cases
radial system
ray initials
#
simple
parenchyma
rays
store carbs
upright cells
procumbent cells
multiseriate
only if has a resin canal
mainly uniseriate
ray tracheids
horizontal and rectangular
Secondary Phloem
formed from VC
#
axial system
conduction up & down root
contains
sieve tube members
companion cells
fibers
nonconducting parenchyma
radial system
only innermost layer capable of conduction
phloem rays
size and shape match xylem rays
Outer Bark
cork cambium
#
"phellogen"
cells are cuboidal
outer cell differentiates into
cork cell
"phellem cell"
phelloderm
layer of parenchyma
#
All together make "Periderm"
offers temporary protection
all tissues outside innermost
#
is outer bark
ALL 2phloem between VC and innermost CC
inner bark
aerenchymatous cork
lenticels
diffusion pathway for O2
more layers of cells
protrude outward
Anomalous Forms of Growth
alt cambia produces secondary bodies
storage parenchyma increased
secondary tissues
irregular matrix of parenchyma
eudicots
#
secondary phloem
"included phloem"
monocots
parenchyma cells
secondary vascular bundles
xylem
phloem
thick walls
increase in width and (+) of adv. roots
establishment growth
Vascular Plants Without Seeds
Early Vascular Plants
Rhyniophytes
Equal dichotomous branching
both branches equal in size
homosporous
no separate microspores and megaspores
Zosterophyllophytes
small herbs without secondary growth
sporangia
#
lateral
opened transversely
exarch protostele
#
homosporous
xylem structure
2 types
protostele
center is solid mass with no pith
endarch protostele
protoxylem is located in the center
exarch
metaxylem in the center and protoxylem on the edges
Lycophyte
sporangia
#
lateral
clustered together in "cones"
protection
exarch protosteles
microphylls
have true roots
heterospory
microspores and megaspores
Euphyllophytes
trimerophytes
overtopping
pseudomonopodial branching
single main trunk
Megaphylls
leaves that evolved from branch systems, present in all seed plants
evolution summarized by the
#
telome theory
sporophyll
Monilophytes
3 snyapomorphies
roots have exarch xylem
megaphylls
30-kilobase inversion in plastid of DNA
sister clades
lignophytes
woody plants
#
Equisetophytes
contain horsetails
no secondary growth
small megaphylls
#
true roots present at nodes
sporangiophore
true monopodial growth
Ferns
leptospornangiate
12,000+ species
can be found in many habitats
sporophyte
#
endarch siphonostele
true roots
megaphyllous leaves
#
homosporous
#
two groups are heterosporous
Eusporangia
fundamental type
surface cells undergo periclinal divisions
outer cells develop into sporangium wall
inner cells proliferate into sporogenous tissues
Leptosporangia
single surface cell divides periclinally
few spores produced
thin covering of sterile cells
Vascular cryptograms
#
ferns and fern allies
vascular tissue
Roots
Root Modifications
Nitrogen fixation
symbiotic relationship
#
biomass
bacteria
#
secrete
causes root hairs to curl
tube
"Infection thread"
extends and forms root nodule
#
no enzyme system to use it
conversion
ATM N to usable compounds
Storage Roots
long term for carbs
produce new shoot in spring
annual plants dont need
Prop Roots
in soil
contract slightly
#
act as stabilizer
secondary growth
can become very strong
no breaking
no sagging
banyan trees
massive trees
roots become tall
buttress roots
upperside grows rapidly
brace the trunk
against wind
mangroves
selectively advantageous
subterranean portion
no O2
cortex
wide aerenchyma
Aerial Roots of Orchids
epiphytic
living attached to branches
roots spread along bark
epidermis
#
"Velamen"
layers of large dead cells (white)
waterproof barrier
Contractile Roots
more contraction than prop roots
caused by changes in
cortex cell shape
more common
Mycorrhizae
symbiotic relationship
ectomycorrhizal relationship
woody forest plants
#
fungal hyphae
penetrate cortex but never invade cell
endomycorrhizal association
herbaceous plants
hyphae penetrate root cortex
cannot pass casparian strip
#
root nodules
remain simple
complex
meristematic region
vascular tissue
#
endodermis
represent symbiosis
benefit
bacteria
#
without complex development does not occur
plant
not damaged
Haustorial Roots
parasitic plants'
highly modified
Haustoria
little root like structure remains
firmly to host
secreting adhesive
growing around
External Structures
lateral roots
"branch roots"
numerous
small
taproot
develops from embryonic roots
radicle
may produce more later roots
fibrous root system
monocots
eudicots
radicle dies
adventitious roots
not radicles
do not arise from pre-existing roots
increase absorption and transport capacities of root system
root cap
thick layer of cells
protects root apical meristem
dictyosomes
secrete
mucigel
lubricates passage of root through soil
rich in carbohydrates
foster rapid growth of soil bacteria
rich in amino acids
behind root cap
#
zone of elongation
few mm long
cells undergo
division
expansion
behind
root hair zone
epidermal cells
extend out
trichomes
root hairs
form in part of root that is not elongating
increase surface area
Internal Structures
root cap
#
provide protection
cells
meristematic
small
root apical meristem
quiescent region
mitotically inactive central region
resistant to harm
reserve of healthy cells
form new apical meristem
zone of elongation
#
behind root apical meristem
no cells mature
protoxylem
provascular tissue
closest to meristem
tissues are permeable
protophloem
outermost cells
protoderm
short zone
little absorption occurs
#
zone of maturation/root hair zone
grow outward
increasing absorption of h2o
minerals
no free access
vascular tissues
#
#
inner most layer
cortical cells
endodermis
#
cylinder
tangential walls
1 more item...
radial walls
1 more item...
bands alt walls
1 more item...
zone of elongagtion
#
merges
cortex cells enlarge
between
#
#
parenchyma cells
pericycle
#
lateral roots
#
absorbtion
h20
root pressure
Origin & Development of Lateral Roots
initiated by cell divisons
in pericycle
densely cytoplasmic
smaller vacuoles
activity
root primordium
organizes into
root apical meristem
#
pushes outward
swells into cortex
#
endodermis
rip
root cap forms
#
undergo cell division
deep within
endogenous
axillary buds
superficial
Leaves
morphology
succulent
Crassulaceae
Portulacaceae
Aizoacceae
leaves
thick
fleshy
water conservation
mesophyll
few air spaces
transparent
Sclerophyllous Folliage
leaves
more sugars
perennial
restitant
animals
fungi
#
freezing
uv light
sclerophylls
wax abundant
sclerophyllous
sclernechyma
below epidermis
#
in bundle sheaths
Conifers
leaves
sclerophylls
thick cuticle
thick walls
simple
needles
short or long
pines
firs
spruces
shield-like
junipers
cypresses
asborvitae
mostly perennial
bud scales
most common
tight layer around stem tip
protect
structure
small
tougher
waxier
corky bark
#
great protection
spines
cacti
micro green leaves
axillary buds
#
excellent source of H2O
Tendrils
modified leaf
grow indefinitely
sense contact
stop growing when touched
Kranz Anatomy
C4 photosynthesis
lack palisade parenchyma
lack spongy mesophyll
prominent bundle sheaths
large chlorophylls
ring of mesophyll cells
adapts to arid environments.
External Structures
lamina
dorsal surface
underside
ventral surface
upperside
smooth
simple
one part
compound
several parts
pretorn
small blades
leaflets
petiole
#
#
prevent shading
sessile leaf
no petiole
veins
vascular tissue
#
collect sugars
photosynthesis
#
reticulate venation
basal angiosperms
eudicots
parallel venation
monocots
#
side-by-side
long, strap-shaped
leaf base
#
abscission zone
perpendicular
cut off
leaf scar
development
Basal Angiosperms
Eudicots
leaves
produced thru activity of
shoot apical mersitem
base
protrusion formed
leaf primordium
narrow cone
talll
leaf protoderm
ground meristem
#
meristematic
dense cytoplasm
small vacuoles
grows
upwards
3 more items...
monocots
#
initiated
#
hood-like shape
lamina
broad
#
constant basal expansion
Internal Stuctures
epidermis
#
#
water
loss
transpiration
stomata
not good
non-moving air
hairy
trichomes
provide shade
common in desert plants
lower surface
prevent rapid air movement
slow
#
interior
mesophyll
upper surface
#
palisade parenchyma
main photosynthetic
1-4 layers
equally functional
lower surface
spongy mesophyll
aerenchyma
open
loose
CO2
in center
or lacking
vascular tissues
#
between
#
#
eudicot
#
1 midrib
lateral veins'
branch into minor veins
release
#
bundle sheath
#
fibers
rigidity to blade
leaf traces
diverge towards petrioles
stipules
protect
photosynthesis
#
die early
Stems
growth (vascular bundles)
apical meristems
subapical meristem
stop dividing
protoxylem
first
#
differentiate
metaxlyem
dont have to be extensible
walls
helical
annular
maturity
dead
protoderm
ground meristem
provascular tissue
produces
primary tissues
activity
primary growth
divides
mitosis
cytokinesis
exterior cells
protophloem
closest to
#
stop dividing
metaphloem
mature
walls identical
indeterminate growth
size
not determined by genes
indeterminate organogenesis
exceptional
annual
1 year
biennial
2 years
Cells and Tissues
Collenchyma
#
elongated shoot tips
#
vine-like
weak
damaged by wind
water
none causes wilting
support
#
glucose
thick walls
#
primary wall
Sclerenchyma
primary wall
#
secondary wall
elastic
develope from
#
fibers
#
long
sclereids
#
short
brittle
Parenchyma
#
#
primary walls
most common
tissue
most common type
dye at maturity
phloem
all soft parts of plant
Chlorenchyma cells
many chloroplast
thin walls
Glandular Cells
secrete subtances
few chloroplasts
many dictyosomes
er
transport
sugar
minerals
transport out
Transfer cells
surface area increased
knobs, ridges
large scale
pumping
epidermis
single layer
#
thin-walled
cutin
fatty
impermeable
#
cuticle
wax
cells
guard
pair
protect
cellulose
swell
stoma
CO2
#
enters
O2
exit
elongate
trichomes
hairs
block sunlight
multiple celled
many forms
mature cells
#
#
#
#
differentiation
early
protoderm
interior
cortex
#
#
homogenous
ground meristem
#
vascular tissues
#
#
xylem
conducts
minerals
water
cells
#
tracheids
reticular thickening
weak
circular bordered pits
groups
pit membrane
#
vessel elements
less friction
h2o moves easier
differentiation
perforation
stack
vessel
absorb h20 from other cells
annular thickening
primary wall
large surface area
#
secondary wall
helical thickening
phloem
#
distributes
minerals
sugar
conducting
sieve
albuminous cells
sieve tube members
plates
short
transport
sap
#
companion cells
load sugars
sieve element
differentiates
plasmodesmota
alive during
sieve pores
groups
areas
increase cytoplasm
young cells
provascular tissue
vascular bundles
#
occur together
#
#
interior to cortex
parallel
surrounding pith
primary x.
#
larger
primary p.
collateral
shoot
nodes
leaves
axil
axillary bud
bud scales
waxy
protect organs
phyllotaxy
positioning
one
alternate
3+
whorled
two
opposite
internodes
explore
stolons
"runners"
nutrient storage
#
bulbs
thick
#
corms
tubers
rhizomes
Populations and Ecosystems
Plants in relation to their habitat
habitat
set of conditions to complete life cycle
operational habitat
affect a plant
2 types
Biotic
#
living factors
plant itself
other plant species
mutualism
beneficial for both org.
competition
disadvantageous for org.
competitive exclusion
very little competition occurs
niche
#
set of aspects of habitat that affect a species
ecotypes
transplant experiments
grown together in a common garden
Other than plants
commensal relationships
1 species benefits the other doesnt
common
unharmed
predation
one species benefits the other is harmed
plant and fungi
pathogenic
Abiotic
#
nonliving, physical phenomena
latitude
12 hour long days at equator
no seasonal variation
higher lat,
longer days
winter nights
light energy that strikes a given area
altitude
#
soil
breakdown of rock
young soils are deficient in nitrogen
first plant to invade new soil
pioneer
have to tolerate severe conditions
thick soil
3 layers of horizons
"A" Horizon
3 more items...
"B" Horizon
3 more items...
"C" horizon
1 more item...
disturbances
fires
common in dry ecosystems
lightning storms
floods
avalanches
radical change in ecosystem
climate
important to all org.
Structure of populations
limiting factor
spread throughout a region
all aspects of an interaction with its habitat
#
any factor of the ecosystem
Water
temperatures
biotic
#
critical
Random distribution
no pattern
clumped distribution
spacing between plants is small or large
rarely average
can result from many factors
Uniform distribution
evenly spaced
orchards
tree plantations
not common in nature
Age distribution
demography
way pop responds to various factors
Pop growth
Generation time
birth to the birth of ones offspring
biotic potential
intrinsic rate of natural increase
number of off that live to reproduce in optimal conditions
Carrying capacity
"K"
num of ind in each pop that can live in a particular ecosystem
limited
N=K, pop growth stops
#
#
#
structure of ecosystems
Physiognomic structure
physical size and shape
herbs
shrubs
trees
life forms
defined by C. Raunkiaer
temporal structure
changes in an ecosystem over time
gradual and dramatic changes over long periods
could be a day
species composition
number and diversity of species that coexist
climate is mild or stressful?
soil is rich or poor?
tolerance are broad or narrow?
presence of a large number of species creates more niches
#
Trophic Levels
#
feeding levels
each ecosystem contains autotrophs
primary producers
first step of food web
energy and nutrient supply for herbivores
primary consumers
preyed on by carnivores
secondary consumers
as plants are eaten
energy flow occur
carbon flow occur
decomposers
#
#
breakdown remains of all types of org.
fungi and bacteria
minerals recycled rapidly
IMPORTANT
pyramid of energy
mutualism
habitat source
habitat in structure regarding population
development of roots
gametophyte reference
ATP energy in glycolysois
zygote basic structure
hapold and diploid are ploidy 1n 2n
1n 2n
seeds are produced in some flowers but not all
pollen transfer used with cones
Conifers are put in a wood category
Conifers are woody forest plants
development of broad leaves in Gnetophyta
Gymnosperms produced special cells in plants
**Vascular cambium strucutre can be found in aneurophytales
Liverworts with thallus do not contain roots
Decomposers can be bacteria
Moncot structure in both leaves and roots
woody forest plan, this helps to support transport processes
vascular tissues in both structures
Decomposers can use a symbiotic relationship
Zygotes both divide the same way
Origin of mutation and factors
Evolution of the megaphylls
type of -ploidy structure
Ground meristem in leaves and in cortex of epidermis
Epidermis is stems and leaves are similar
Parenchyma tissue located throughout various structures
Photosynthesis used to create energy
Both are have comlpex vascular tissue
Ginkophyta and Euphyllophytes are both w
woody plant structures
parenchyma tissue in outer bark
cork cambium is bark
Leaves and woody plants both have eudicots
atp energy used for glycolysis
Photosynthesis in the collecfed sugars of
veins of leaves
CO2 used in multiple reactions
Ground meristem in leaves are also found in the vascular bundles of stems
Evolution made it possible for roots to become soecialized
Seed plants are thought to have evolved after vascular plants without seeds
