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The early actions of Richard, Duke of York (what did York want to achieve…
The early actions of Richard, Duke of York
the impact of Henry VI's recovery
situation end of 1454:
York in a good position
Somerset in the Tower of London
Duke of Exeter imprisoned at Pontefract Castle
Richard Percy & Lord Egremont locked up in Newgate, debtor's prison (failed to pay £11,200 fine imposed for damages done to Neville property)
Christmas Day the King began to recover
immediate impact
early 1455 York's protectorate ended - signed his last council papers 30 December 1454 + Henry's full recovery reported early January 1455
start of February 1455 Henry ordered release of the Duke of Exeter, order ignored by Earl of Salisbury who was Constable of Pontefract Castle where Exeter was being held.
Earl of Salisbury replaced as chancellor by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Thomas Bourchier which then led to release of Duke of Exeter.
Somerset released from Tower 4 February + restored to power a month later, all charges of treason against him dropped + Captaincy of Calais returned to him.
Earl of Wiltshire made treasurer 13 March, replacing Earl of Worcester
anticipating trouble, York + the Nevilles left court without formally taking leave of the King - Somerset had returned to power + York thought he would seek revenge for his imprisonment.
things might have been different if York had been able to work with Somerset during his protectorate but by imprisoning him, he made him determined to seek revenge
those who felt they had been hard done by during York's protectorate found themselves adhering more closely to Somerset while those who had done well were drawn to York :arrow_right: 2 sides beginning to form more clearly
although York lacked much in the way of noble support, those who did support him held immense power - Salisbury + Warwick were great landowners + could command extremely large armies :arrow_right: where York had lacked the noble support necessary to be successful at Dartford in 1452, he now had the numbers in 1455.
York + the Nevilles
York had tried to establish a broad-based + inclusive council but no such attempt was made after the recovery of Henry VI :arrow_right: return of a narrow-based gvt. focused on Somerset + his supporters.
if an alliance between York + the Nevilles had not been firmly established before the re-emergence of Somerset, it was now.
Nevilles had always been loyal to Lancastrian kings + had grown strong under their rule - not the Percy family that dominated the north at this time, but Nevilles, who'd benefited bc of disloyalty of Percy family to previous Lancastrian monarchs - had the gvt. dealt differently w/ the Nevilles, they probably would have remained loyal to Lancastrian dynasty, leaving York in a similar situation to that of 1452 when Salisbury had been a key figure in the King's entourage + Y lacked the support necessary to mount a credible challenge to S.
favouring of Percys over Nevilles in disputes pushed Nevilles into supporting Y who they believed would provide justice + w/ them came the sizeable armies they could command.
April H called a parliament to be held at Leicester - at heart of K's Midland powerbase. Y + Nevilles feared that if they attended they would find themselves in a trap - had every reason to fear that S would move against them + have Y put on trial for treason :arrow_right: possibly for that reason they decided not to attend.
Y could have already have decided to resort to force in order to remove his enemies +, along w/ Salisbury + Warwick, was forming an army. Nevilles perhaps saw supporting Y as the only possible way to retain their position having seen their enemies, e.g. Exeter + Northumberland, find favour at court.
How successful was York's first protectorate?
became protector March 1454
title Protector + Defender used instead of regent
rivals: Margaret of Anjou + Duke of Exeter (Henry Holland)
How did York become protector?
there were reservations on the part of the lords e.g. Archbishop of Canterbury + Chancellor, John Kemp, thought that a protectorate led by Y would seek revenge on S.
there was a delay of some months between the onset of the King's mental illness + Y's appointment probably due to those reservations - many would have hoped for some signs of recovery especially when K's son born.
March 1454 Kemp died, bringing situation to a head - gvt. couldn't function without a chancellor - important in justice system.
chancellor could only be appointed by K but incapacitated so regent had to be appointed so governance could continue.
tension was rising in London following attack on S + his subsequent confinement in Tower.
parliament called by Y Feb. 1454 but attendance so poor that fines for non-attendance imposed for first + only time.
Y determined to see good attendance so as many nobles could be involved in formation of protectorate + thus give his appointment legitimacy.
last attempt to rouse K by 12 councillors without success :arrow_right: Y appointed protector -- the power he'd dreamed of.
constraints
degree of uncertainty to how long he'd have power
P set up on understanding it would end should K recover or when Edward came of age - Y could be in power for years
there were others who rejected his authority e.g. Duke of Exeter + Percys - Exeter felt he had a stronger claim to be P than Y + Percys doubted Y's ability to be impartial + were not inclined to show him the obedience reserved for a protector.
attempts by York to build support
he made an effort to be inclusive - knew his support base was narrow so included others on his council e.g. household members
tried to be even-handed + inclusive but his treatment of Somerset undermined all this.
he tried not to show too much favour to his supporters
in Devon he didn't remove Bonville + Earl of Wiltshire from their positions of power, to annoyance of Earl of Devon - wanted to replace Bonville :arrow_right: felt let down by Y so fought on side of K against Y at St Albans 1455.
he did have to reward them however, Devon faced charges of treason due to his part in attempted coup 1452 at Dartford --> acquitted.
Earl of Salisbury, York's main supporter, appointed chancellor - unusual as position normally reserved for members of clergy.
Nevilles favoured in their disputes with the Percys.
treatment of Somerset
S placed in Tower of London Nov. 1453 - accused of treason by Duke of Norfolk over his failures in the French campaigns.
Y aware that should K recover, S would recover his power + Y would be in as vulnerable a position then as S was now.
Y wanted to bring S to trial but was prevented by other nobleman who were not prepared to go along with Y's attack on S.
Y did manage to have himself appointed Captain of Calais in S's place but nobles who formed centre ground or supporters of S wouldn't allow Y to destroy him.
Y may have genuinely wanted to introduce a broad-based council but couldn't bring himself to work with S :arrow_right: so there were others who couldn't trust him as they couldn't ignore the fact S remained in the Tower + was yet to be formally charged with any crime.
reforms introduced by York
Y wanted to increase the income of the Crown - MPs still reluctant to vote to increase taxes even though wasteful Henry VI had been replaced by the reforming York.
Y did manage to persuade wool merchants to resume making loans to gvt. on promise of repayment of previous loans made.
he attempted to reform the navy - deemed necessary to protect merchant shipping in Channel :arrow_right: scheme made limited progress due to lack of funds but was step in right direction.
wool trade hugely important to England + customs duties paid were a welcome + regular source of income for Crown - in some years under Henry VI raising £30,000 :arrow_right: any policies that assisted this trade could only be of benefit to King's finances.
retaining possession of Calais also important to protection of shipping in Channel but funding needed to pay soldiers defending it against possible French attacks + Y needed to take control of Calais as still in hands of men who supported Somerset --> replacing S as Captain of Calais was a step towards taking this control but Y wasn't able to go to Calais as Protectorate ended 1455.
Y consistently maintained need for reform since return to England 1450 + once Protector made an effort to implement changes he deemed necessary.
Protector: limits to what he could do e.g. couldn't replace members of King's household w/ men of his own even though the household was full of Somerset's supporters but he was able to reduce size of royal household in 1454 + its expenditure in 1455 to £5,193 from £24,000 in 1450.
dealing with disorder & justice
biggest challenge to protectorate: worsening disorder around country as different nobles took to using force to solve their problems with each other.
Y endeavoured to be as even-handed as he could be when dealing w/ issues brought to him but all too often the nobles didn't have sufficient faith in Y's ability to administer impartial justice to look to him to resolve their disputes.
they had only to look at treatment of Somerset + his continued imprisonment to see how they might fare themselves.
Y distributed grants of positions + titles more fairly + sparingly than K had.
no evidence to suggest his supporters benefited outrageously from any grants he made.
this + move to include nobles who hadn't supported him in the council signalled his intent to be just.
Y's attempts to deal with Courtenay-Bonville feud in Devon in an equitable fashion
loss of 1 of his most longstanding allies - bent too far in Bonville's favour in view of Courtenay or didn't favour his cause enough -- supporters expected to be rewarded.
due to not being appointed Protector Exeter joined Percys in north + began a rebellion --> attacked Neville property + took control of city of York for 5 days in May 1454.
Y acted w/ vigour - gathered an army + headed north to deal w/ the trouble :arrow_right: Exeter fled to London + took sanctuary in Westminster Abbey --> later removed by Y.
November 1454 Battle of Stamford Bridge Percys defeated + leaders captured.
contrast in way in which Henry VI failed to deal w/ feuding nobles clear.
end of protectorate - seemed as if real progress had been made but not a complete success - there were some that refused to accept Y's authority e.g. Longfords didn't feel they would get justice from Y in their disputes w/ Blounts (York supporters).
the fact remained that Y was one of the nobility + many didn't believe he had the detachment necessary to provide impartial justice.
significance of the actions of Margaret of Anjou
significance of her actions
she may have been motivated by a need to protect her husband''s interests + saw her actions as consistent with that of a supporting wife.
birth of her son + Henry's mental illness stirred her into action
uncertainty over whether H would ever recover his senses made her realise that if her son was ever going to inherit the throne, it was down to her.
she didn't think she could trust those around her sufficiently to work in her son's best interests, especially York.
effect of the Battle of St Albans 1455
King injured - confirmed M's worst fears - Y had raised an army + taken military action against the K + M had to now watch her husband become a puppet in Y's hands.
deepened her suspicions of Y as a threat to her family
authority of Crown undermined by Y + nothing was being done about it
sense that the other nobles who should have had the K's well-being at the heart of their concerns could not be relied upon anymore - all fallen in with Y's plans
:arrow_right: her fears urged her in her quest to secure her son's inheritance - not let Y usurp the powers that belonged to the King.
bid to become regent
significant as it marked the first sign of her interest in political matters that went beyond the usual role of queen
suggested she began to reassert herself once H had recovered his senses.
it was probably she + Somerset who encouraged H to call a great council at Leicester having convinced him that Y + the Nevilles were plotting treason - she held the castle + town of Leicester.
putting herself forward as a candidate for the regency was stepping beyond the bounds of the traditional role of a Queen.
there was little backing for her among the nobility - only Viscount Beaumont.
there were problems between the nobles at the time --> they were unlikely to pull together to provide her with the necessary support.
medieval queens of England didn't have any direct involvement in the governance of the country - often took an intermediary role, mediating on behalf of others in their dealings with the K.
e.g. Y's attempted coup at Dartford - Duchess of York corresponded with the Queen asking her to mediate on her husband's behalf as he had been ostracised from court.
March 1454 York appointed Protector + Defender of the Realm - seemed as if M accepted this as there is little evidence of any political activity on her part for the next 2 + a half years.
reaction to the birth of Henry VI's heir
Edward, Prince of Wales, born 13 October 1453
birth solved question of succession but not of who should lead the gvt. while H was ill.
Somerset saw signs of concern for his position + saw Y as a threat.
York - closest blood relative to H but out of favour still following attempted coup at Dartford 1452 although he couldn't be ignored for long.
27 March 1454 York named Protector + Defender of England + not long after the great offices of state were filled by his men e.g. Earl of Salisbury (his brother-in-law) made Chancellor
York no longer heir presumptive
but he was determined to lead any regency council needed given K's incapacity
emergence of Margaret of Anjou in politics
showed her favour of Somerset by having him involved in her son's christening - sides forming
fearful for her son's inheritance, she was determined Y shouldn't be appointed regent - attempted to claim regency herself
little support for her - sex, nationality + England's limited experience of female leadership
23 November Somerset arrested + sent to Tower possibly for his safety - never brought to trial suggesting little validity to claims made against him by Norfolk
Did Henry VI's illness cause problems for the government?
nature of the illness
incapable of speech + unable to move without help
oblivious to what was happening around him
able to eat + drink + slept well
when he recovered he had no memory of anything that happened during his illness - amnesia
never fully recovered his mental health
August 1453 - January 1455
causes
pressures of his wife's first pregnancy
news of the death of the great English warrior, John Talbot, Earl of Shrewsbury, at Battle of Castillion 17 July 1453 + subsequent loss of Gascony.
strain of large amount of traveling he had been doing given his weak consitution
historians undecided
hereditary condition - based on the fact that his maternal grandfather, Charles VI of France, was insane
impact
open warfare between Percy + Neville family broke out
H demonstrated little control + authority when he'd been well + problems escalating for some time between the 2 families
24 Aug 1453 party of Nevilles returning from a family wedding attacked at Heworth near York by over 700 Percy followers
the result was inconclusive + led to more fighting between the 2 families
king should have stepped in to put a stop to the illegal behaviour but was incapacitated + council lacked the confidence to act with sufficient firmness
lacking the justice they sought, the Nevilles turned to Duke of York - Ns had done well under Lancastrian rule but now their enemies appeared to be favoured
the Ns gave York the noble support he'd been lacking
council tried to keep the illness quiet but death March 1454 Cardinal Kemp caused tension
Kemp was Archbishop of Canterbury + Chancellor of England - gvt. could not continue without a chancellor
:arrow_right: York appointed Protector + Defender of the Kingdom --> power
why the attempted coup of 1452 failed
Sept. 1451 Y turned down opportunity to join K's council at Coventry + instead returned to Ludlow (Welsh Marches)
there he made decision to use force to impose his wishes on K - attempts through parliament failed
organisation of pro-York demonstrations + gathering of armed support around the country
only the towns of which Y + his ally Earl of Devon were the lords saw risings in Y's support
Y issued propaganda material e.g. sent letters to towns declaring his intentions of bringing good gvt. + an end to the evil advisers surrounding the K
at the same time Y went to great lengths to proclaim his loyalty to the K so not accused of treason
he did everything he could to ensure he would succeed where he had failed in 1450
causes
wanted the
removal of Somerset
from his position of
power
- tried to achieve this through parliament + failed so now he was using force
still seeking the
removal of Somerset
bc of his
failures in France
Y didn't feel any more secure in 1452 than in 1450 + continued to
accuse Somerset of plotting against him
Y claimed he was acting against his enemies before they could act against him
no evidence S was about to make a move against him
Henry VI's failure to act against Somerset + his continued show of favouritism towards him contributed towards York's decision to attempt a coup
if H had addressed the charges made by Y against S + treated Y fairly, Y would possibly not have needed to rebel but Y felt S was going unpunished
S seemed to be receiving all the rewards + positions e.g. taking Suffolk's place in H's gvt. that Y felt should be his as senior nobleman of royal blood
reasons for York's lack of success
majority of nobility unwilling to take up arms in support of him
situation in 1452 was very different to that of 1450 - campaigning in France going well, economy recovering, parliament voted a tax to be paid to K + H was active in overseeing justice in South of England
London remained loyal to the king
York's actions looked like treason so not many wanted anything to do with him
popular discontent had eased in England due to increased prosperity
Y's tactic of sending open letters to towns asking for support forewarned K --> he had time to assemble a larger army than Y
Kent did not rise up in support - didn't want a repeat of beheadings that had followed Cade's Rebellion
Y's demands failed to have popular appeal - attacks on Somerset made Y look motivated by personal issues not the greater good of England
events of 1452
Y acquired the support of William Courtenay, Earl of Devon, + Lord Cobham then marched from Ludlow with an armed following towards London
propaganda was issued + open letters sent to various towns in order to gain support for York's cause
Y issued statements declaring his loyalty to K + swore an oath of allegiance Jan. 1452 in front of witnesses but people still feared he would be committing treason
no other members of the nobility were prepared to join him + the county of Kent, on whom Y was depending, did not rise as the Kentish people feared retribution on the scale they'd seen after Cade's Rebellion
London failed to rise + shut its gates to Y so he had to cross river at Kingston-upon-Thames
Y reached Dartford, Kent, 2 March to find K with a strong army of his own including Buckingham, Salisbury + Warwick (who had previously shown sympathy for Y's cause but wasn't prepared to take up arms in support of him in 1452 against the K)
faced with a substantial army, Y decided to submit to K + on bended knees he presented K with his list of complaints against Somerset but H was unfailing in his support for S who was at his side throughout
what did York want to achieve on his return from Ireland?
on arrival in North Wales he didn't receive a warm welcome as the King, under guidance of Duke of Somerset, didn't trust Y + was suspicious of his motives
men from K's household sent to prevent his progress through North Wales + imprison him, according to Y
Y returned to England without being asked to do so by K
Somerset had filled the gap left in court by the Duke of Suffolk as chief councillor to the king
to get his loans repaid
Y was the richest nobleman in England but his position required that he pay retainers + keep up appearances
by 1450 he had to sell land to make ends meet
if he was running the gvt. he could ensure he was paid what he was owed
owed £26,000 by the gvt. + hadn't been paid his wages as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland
Somerset was having his war loans repaid ahead of others
to protect his position
position as heir presumptive
feared if he was found guilty of treason, Somerset would be recognised as heir instead (also of royal blood)
he was furious that Somerset had acquired position of K's chief adviser - felt it should rightfully be his as senior nobleman of realm
feared he would be side-lined like when Suffolk had been alive
to remove Somerset
felt position of chief adviser should be his by right of birth
felt S was responsible for loss of Normandy + with it, much of York's property
protests in London concerning loss of Normandy + inflamed by arrival of York --> tone became anti-Somerset so he was placed in the Tower for his own safety December 1450 by Henry until the city had calmed
to clear his name
Cade's Rebellion - Jack Cade used name Jack Mortimer: York's mother's maiden name
fear of being named a traitor
throughout his journey to London he sent messages to K declaring his loyalty + obedience
the fact he arrived unbidden from Ireland with an armed following of 3000 men made it seem as if his return was in response to calls from the rebels
if he was to lead the rebels he would have returned sooner - not 2 months after
in the rebel manifesto the rebels called for the king to take advice from York not Suffolk
rumours Y was behind Cade's Rebellion - name Mortimer pointed to Y's claim to the throne causing some to think he wanted to usurp the king
to bring justice + end corruption
danger: could be linked with Cade rebels who made the same demands + might incite further rebellion if Y was seen as a potential leader
Y claimed to be attacking the 'evil men' who surrounded the king - could have been influenced by his arrival in North Wales (cold welcome)
could have been a personal edge or genuine desire to see justice + good governance
September 1450 Y made a public statement calling for the traitors to be brought to justice + at the same time asserted his loyalty to K
he offered his personal assistance to help solve the problems of law + order + the household - offered help to the ordinary people - willing to address their complaints
:arrow_right: invited to join Henry's council of advisers
to take the throne
1450 a man was hanged in Ipswich for plotting to put Y on the throne
one of the Moleyns' murderers threatened to put Y on the throne in front of the king
:red_cross: Cade rebels' manifesto: wanted the king to take his advice from Y + other nobles of royal blood, not to replace the king with Y
:red_cross: Y consistently proclaimed his loyalty to Henry VI, professing only to want to serve the king in an advisory capacity