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chapter 22 (lignophytes (gymnosperms (angiosperms (progymnospoerms…

- - - - flowering plants, those with carpels, which are believed ot be sporophylls that form a tube-like, closed structure; fruits are mature carpels.
      - progymnospoerms
        
        named because some gave rise later to conifers, cycads, and the other gymnospeorms. like ferns and horsetails, progymnospoerms also developed megaphyllous leaves; however, another feature was just as significant
        
        integument
        
        the megasporangium was surrounded by a layer of tissue
        
        micropyle
        
        a hole in the integument that permitted the sperm cells to swim to the egg after the megaspore had developed into a megagametophyte and had produced eggs
        
        pollen chamber
        
        holding area; megasporangium, the space at the top of the megasporangium became the place where microspores settled
        
        seed ferns
        
        appeared in the upper devonian period-- other appeared later. not all are closely related to each other, they form a grade(a level of evolution) rather than a clade(all of the descendants of a common ancestor, regardless of their level of evolution)
        
        long shoots
        
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