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Lateral Habenula (LHb) (connects to (Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) (leads…

- - - - increase in motivation
    - - https://www-sciencedirect-com.ez-proxy.brooklyn.cuny.edu/science/article/abs/pii/0006899388914102
- - - - Dopamine (DA)
        
        signals
        
        positive prediction
        
        by increasing
        
        their firing rates
        
        negative prediction
        
        by decreasing
        
        has an effect on
        
        Motivational processes
        
        as supported by
        
        https://www.jneurosci.org/content/jneuro/13/3/900.full.pdf
        
        Attentional processes
    - - Reward omission
        
        which is important for
        
        Avoidance and Fear learning
        
        as supported by:
        
        Groups (VTA and LHB) received training in avoidance acquisition for 5 sessions with brain acquisition) followed by 5 sessions with no stimulation. Results suggest that when stimulation is omitted there is a no significant change in avoidance learning thus suggesting that effects of LHb on avoidance learning are permanent. [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/de3e/f5d8ac99acbfeeed007427863b01e2dfec2d.pdf?_ga=2.81054999.182830780.1579697496-657944438.1579697496]
    - - GABA cells (inhibitory action)
- - - - Extinction occurs faster in lesion group.
        
        suggesting that
        
        LHb activation
        
        promotes
        
        maintenance of defensive behavior in case of possible return of US (protection against extinction learning)
        
        provides
        
        inhibitory control over learning driven by omission of aversive outcomes
      - Rats were separated into three groups (LHb lesion with electric stimulation, Sham group with lesion and no current stimulation, and no lesion group)and trained to make a freezing response when presented with a CS in order to avoid shock. This training was done over 5 days, followed by 20 trials of extinction. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.ez-proxy.brooklyn.cuny.edu/science/article/pii/S0166432816307902?via%3Dihub]
    - - All groups acquire associations between CS and US at a similar rate. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.ez-proxy.brooklyn.cuny.edu/science/article/pii/S0166432816307902?via%3Dihub]
- - - - Serotonin (5-HT) in the brain
        
        as supported by:
        
        https://www-sciencedirect-com.ez-proxy.brooklyn.cuny.edu/science/article/abs/pii/001448867990102X?via%3Dihub
        
        https://plu.mx/a/?ebsco-client=s8684074&pmid=194312
- - - - Two groups (sham and Habenula lesion) were trained to complete the Morris Water-maze in 5 days. Each session included 4 starts from 4 different locations (NE, SE, NW, SW). On day 6 each group received a retention test from each of the 4 locations. Results were recorded on the amount of time spent in each quadrant (black = habenula lesion group and white = sham group. [https://www-sciencedirect-com.ez-proxy.brooklyn.cuny.edu/science/article/pii/S0149763407000103?via%3Dihub]
- - - - Hippocampus
        
        as supported by:
        
        https://www-sciencedirect-com.ez-proxy.brooklyn.cuny.edu/science/article/abs/pii/0304394086902259?via%3Dihub
        
        is important for
        
        Memory Storage
        
        Memory Consolidation
        
        by working alongside the
        
        Neocortex
        
        https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4526749/pdf/cshperspect-LNM-a021766.pdf
    - - Contextual Memory Retrieval
        
        Two groups of mice (no B1-adrenergic deficiency group and no deficiency group) were exposed to fear-conditioning. There is a reduction in retrieval in the deficient group when tested one day after training, but no significant difference is seen a week after. https://www.cell.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0092-8674%2804%2900259-4
        
        This supports that NE may be essential in RETRIEVAL but NOT CONSOLIDATION
      - Spatial Memory Retrieval
        
        Spatial MemoryTesting was done on two groups of rats (saline group and propranolol group) using the Morris Water Maze after official training. The x- axis represent the different quadrants (P=platform during training, AR=adjacent right, AL=adjacent left, O=opposite) and the y-axis accounts for latency. Animals with propranolol dose has a preference for the P quadrant as suggested by Figure D. This preference was no longer detected a week later (Figure F). https://www.cell.com/action/showPdf?pii=S0092-8674%2804%2900259-4
        
        This suggest that NE 's effect on Spatial Memory Retrieval is LIMITED