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The Origins and Operations of the Indian Education System (Indians became…
The Origins and Operations of the Indian Education System
Initial Policy
Robert Clive in 1757: Britons should not interfere in Indian education.
Various institutions founded by the British thereafter, which supported indigenous knowledge. Consideration was the need for Indians well-versed in indigenous knowledge who would help them govern the country. Also wanted goodwill of Indian elites. Some purely admired Indian culture and knowledge.
Some avenues of success:
Increased education of women
Increased education for the lower castes and backward classes, but education for the scheduled castes gained traction only with Mahatma Gandhi's nationwide movement to ban untouchability in 1921
But British efforts at expanding education for marginalized communities was politically motivated. They wanted to suppress the "advanced" communities, so they made their enemies more powerful.
1854's Wood Despatch
Charter Committee again reformed in 1853
Govt under pressure to take an active role in education
Recommendations
Starting Universities
Increasing mass education
Setting up a Department of Public Education
Giving grants-in-aid to private enterprise
Policy was by and large adhered to.
Obstacles:
Limited funds
Small staff
Administrative needs
Inability to identify with the people
Lack of trained teachers
Actual Policy
Neglecting mass education and concentrating on elite education
Leaving education to private enterprise (according to the 1882 Commission)
Elementary education focusing on the 3 R's
University Education based on rote memorization and examinations
Overemphasizing on humanities and languages instead of science, unlike their stated policy
Challenges Towards Initial Policy of Promoting Indigenous Education:
Challengers felt that Indian society had to be transformed.
Evangelicals (Charles Grant): Britain had the duty of regenerating ignorant and regressive Indian society through English education and introduction of Christianity. Main aim: to convert Indians to Christianity.
Free Traders: Indians would be potential customers of their goods.
Liberals: Western education was superior because it was scientific and modern. To provide a civilizing and humanising influence to the Indian masses.
Utilitarians (James Mill): To correct defects of Indian society and promote useful learning.
EIC's lack of interest in education unsurprising because it was only interested in trade and did not wish to interfere in Indian traditions.
1813: Influenced by Grant: Clause in Company's Charter for lawful investment of 1 lakh rupees for promoting Western sciences and regenerating knowledge.
Court of directors tried to oppose the clause but couldn't because they were dependent on the government.
Minto suggested reviving Indian government's traditional patronage of education be revived. Company continued promoting indigenous education till 1823.
1823: General Committee of Public Instruction
Debate about whether Oriental or Western education should be promoted.
By 1830, younger members felt that indigenous education was a waste.
Macaulay was the President of the General Committee of Public Instruction.
In 1835, he did not resolve all the debates except those of the medium of education to be adopted in higher education financed by the government.
English would give the natives access to the much superior Western knowledge, or so he reasoned.
The role of English education would also produce a class of intermediaries who would foster bonding between the British and the native masses.
Practical considerations: Company was in financial crisis during 1833, so the company felt it is cheaper to pay Indians for subordinate roles in the revenue and judicial departments. Mostly cheap clerks.
Meanwhile, missionaries and rich Indian citizens promoted English education.
Socioeconomic changes occurred in the meanwhile. Indians found English education useful because it gave them increased opportunities, and indigenous Sanskrit and Arabic education became less popular. Indians also believed that they must assimilate Western Knowledge (e.g. Raja Ram Mohan Roy).
1902 Indian Universities Commission Followed by 1904 Indian Universities Act
Prompted by the belief that Indian-managed English education was increasing political awareness and thus leading to instability
Act streamlined university governance and strengthened university teaching
Higher Education
Law colleges most popular
Only about 24 medical colleges by 1947. High fees, uncertain employment, and limited hospitals factors in limited growth
Engineering and technical education grew because of the need for competent overseers for military and civil works. But technological subjects were limited because the British did not want Indians in higher positions at government agencies. Limited industry as well, so there was no point encouraging Indian technical education.
Little attention paid to agricultural colleges, with little relevance to the Indian context and limited exposure to dairy and poultry
Indians became increasingly discontented with British policy. Led to Indian efforts at education.
Arya Samajis: 1902 Gurukul at Haridwar emphasising Sanskrit education in Hindi medium
Tagore: Shantiniketan
Gopal Krishna Gokhale: 1911 Bill demanding free and compulsory mass education
Opposed on the grounds that it was premature and financially unsound
Indian-owned institutions of Science and Engineering, such as Victoria Jubilee Technical Institute, Bombay, in 1887
Gandhi: Wardha Scheme: Elementary education in mother tongue emphasising manual and productive work
Pace of Growth of Educational Institutes in India
1813--1854: Slow because of lack of clarity in policy
1855-1901: Rapid growth because of increased Indian involvement
Growth slowed a bit afterwards because of restrictions on private education
1921--1947: Rapid expansion because education handed to Indian control. Govt. couldn't control growth of Indian education
Uneven rates of growth:
Faster in Presidencies because they were the first provinces to be annexed and governed by the British
Men more literate and educated than women
Upper castes more educated than SC and STs
Muslims lagged behind in most places except in UP, where they were engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. Jews and Parsis were the most educated.
Reasons for failure of rural vernacular education:
High drop-out ratios
Not applicable to peasants, who had little use for reading and writing at that time
School supplies were expensive