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Title: Compare and contrast the role and impact of differentiation in…

- - - - Effectiveness pg 10
        Teaching science as facts and definitions is unlikely to promote effective learning. Meaningful and memorable learning requires the children to be intellectually and emotionally stimulated. This is more likely to happen if we plan learning settings in which children can experience the pleasure of finding out things about the natural world which surprise them and satisfy their desire to know. We suggest it is possible to apply storytelling techniques to science teaching in order to arouse and satisfy children’s natural curiosity about the world in which they live.
    - - Pg 73
        Learning needs : Essentially, the purpose of formative assessment is to gather information about children’s ideas and to use it to help create new and appropriate learning opportunities. In science classrooms, development is dependent on finding out, and addressing, the difference between a child’s existing ideas and a more scientific point of view. The ideas in question may concern understanding natural phenomena or events, or they may be to do with attitudes or ways of working scientifically. The difference between the children’s way of thinking and ways of thinking from a scientific point of view can be defined as the ‘learning needs’ of the children (Leach and Scott, 2002). The concept of ‘learning needs’ helps us to target teaching strategies for different children, to identify next steps and to hold focused discussions with classes and individuals.
      - pg. 129
        Children’s learning needs are the differences between their everyday thinking and the scientific view which we want them to adopt (Chapter 7). Opportunities to identify learning needs arise whenever children engage in written or oral discussion about scientific ideas. Well-judged questions enable teachers to probe children’s thinking and assess their understanding of the scientific view.
    - - Planning for: pg. 78-85
        
        Raising their own questions increases children’s engagement and stimulates curiosity. Children may not be able to discover the answers to every question from first-hand experience, but because the questions ‘belong’ to them, they are likely to be keen to search for answers using enquiry and information sources.
        
        Raising their own questions increases children’s engagement and stimulates curiosity. Children may not be able to discover the answers to every question from first-hand experience, but because the questions ‘belong’ to them, they are likely to be keen to search for answers using enquiry and information sources.
        
        Children need opportunities to use spoken language to make ideas explicit and to appreciate their value. If we describe scientific ideas using everyday language, we can help children re-describe and re-think their experiences of the natural world from a scientific point of view.
        
        Listening to children’s ideas and responding to their questions provides insights into their learning needs , which can be addressed by looking at the puzzle from a scientific point of view in the re-describing stage.
        
        Physical models Physical models can be useful because they enable children to visualise a concept and to talk about how it works. Models provide children with something concrete to talk about. For example, in teaching about how we digest our food, it is not possible to have a real digestive system to explore. Physical models encourage children to hypothesise about what each part does. This is a form of scientific enquiry. The same applies to the use of models to make sense of more abstract concepts. For example, the motion of the balls inside a Lottery machine help children imagine the particle nature of a gas. The Lottery machine is both a three-dimensional model and an analogy
    - - As the skills needed to carry out scientific enquiry are mastered, children become more independent in their learning. A scientific approach to enquiry relies on creative thinking to raise questions and form hypotheses, to make predictions and plan how to gather evidence using a range of techniques. Once evidence has been collected, it needs to be interpreted and conclusions drawn with reference to the original hypothesis. Finally, scientists must communicate their findings to a wider audience and be prepared to defend their assertions through careful evaluation of the reliability and validity of their enquiry process.
      - The development of positive scientific attitudes is also a crucial part of a child’s science education. Attitudes that teachers can usefully foster include independence, perseverance, cooperation, respect for evidence, creativity and inventiveness, open-mindedness and respect for living things (de Boo, 2006). Attitudes are much more difficult to teach than skills: for example, a learning objective that says ‘Today we are going to learn to persevere’ may be somewhat optimistic. Teachers can model positive scientific attitudes, thinking aloud with the children and sharing enthusiasm for the work. Attitudes displayed by the teacher are crucial in shaping the quality of the learning experience for the children. Encouragingly, attitudes are flexible attributes, open to influence and dependent on experience and context. In science, we can create classroom
    - - Attitudes to science: pg. 4-5
        
        Children enjoy practical science; it is interesting to have a puzzle to solve, to set up your own investigation and find out something new.
        
        Science is not just about exploration but also about sharing the knowledge and understanding that people have accumulated over time. For children, the problem with science is having to ‘learn facts’. There is a lot to learn and it is easy to get things wrong. This includes new words or new uses of words because science, like many other activities, has its own technical vocabulary.
        
        Excitingly, science happens outdoors or offers a chance to measure or observe things around the school. Such practical activity is motivating and engaging, especially if there is a strong collaborative element. Working with a classmate ensures that there is someone to share ideas, and means that disheartening personal failure is less likely.
        
        In summary, children may see conceptual learning as hard work, dull and unoriginal. Although they like ‘doing experiments’, the children in Murphy and Beggs’ (2003) study reported disliking writing, learning facts and technical vocabulary. Learning facts for examinations can have a negative effect on attitudes; children tend to enjoy and value science more when they have opportunities to discuss and debate ideas and issues. Research has shown that there is the need to teach concepts in ways which relate to everyday life and appeal to children’s interests (Osborne et al., 2003; Simon, 2000; Cerini et al., 2003).
    - - pg. 13-15
        :pen: The constructivist view of learning is based on the belief that children make sense of the world by actively constructing their own knowledge and ways of understanding.
        :pen: Educational theorist Jean Piaget saw children’s learning as a process of personal intellectual construction arising from their interactions with the world. In the 1970s his views were adapted to inform a theory of science learning which recognised the influence children’s existing ideas can have on their learning. Driver and Easley (1978) subsequently described children’s personal ideas as ‘interpretive models’ and ‘alternative frameworks’ which endowed them with educational value and interest (Solomon, 1994). The focus on the status of children’s ideas led to the description of children as young scientists with the potential to construct their own scientific explanations through the application of scientific enquiry skills. Constructing scientific knowledge through enquiry methods has proved to be a compelling and enduring vision of how children best learn science.
      - Pg 17-18
        :pen: Effective learning requires children to be provided with new ideas which are consistent with their experiences and which they recognise as useful (Posner et al., 1982).
      - pg 27
        To involve someone else in your science is not just a matter of telling them what you have found; it involves persuading them of the usefulness and validity of the view you adopt, and the relevance of the evidence you present.
    - - Pg 73
        
        Teachers may slip into asking questions to which children have to guess the right answer, that is, find out what the teacher wants them to say.
        For example: T:OK, who can tell me what magnets do? Katy?
        K: Stick to the fridge
        T:Um, yes, fridge magnets – but if you have two magnets, what happens?
        . And so on for many more turns until the class have come up with the required phrases, ‘Like poles repel; unlike poles attract’. Teachers’ questions require a lot of hand-waving on the part of the children and the teacher may have to manage some off-task behaviour created by boredom. This sort of interaction is the source of such phrases as: ‘Listening ears on, everyone!’, ‘Let me see, who is sitting beautifully?’, ‘I can’t ask you because you haven’t got your hand up’ or ‘Can you repeat that, Josh? I couldn’t hear because some people are just not listening’ and so on.
        
        Teachers’ questions : Teachers ask questions to stimulate discussion and help children to articulate their current ideas. Teachers’ questions are meant to engage children by appealing to their personal memories and their willingness to contribute. They are used to ensure that all children are attending and to generate common knowledge. But some questions are more useful than others.
        
        Episodes of interminable questions leave the class and the teacher quite baffled by one another and do not help children to understand anything. Less experienced teachers may copy this style from those who have had years of practice at handling children this way. Children, having little choice, rapidly learn the rules and then spend much of their time finding ways to subvert them.
      - Pg 57-8
        Raising their own questions increases children’s engagement and stimulates curiosity. Children may not be able to discover the answers to every question from first-hand experience, but because the questions ‘belong’ to them, they are likely to be keen to search for answers using enquiry and information sources.
    - - But much learning depends on whole-class sessions led by the teacher. How do the ideas of exploratory talk and interthinking fit with what happens in whole-class talk? Psychologist Jerome Bruner noticed that teachers provide learners with a special sort of help as they tackle a new task or idea. He described the help as ‘scaffolding’, a powerful metaphor to indicate the way that support could be provided and gradually withdrawn as a learner becomes more independent (Bruner, 1986). Scaffolding is part of a teacher’s professional toolkit, constantly in use.
      - For example, a child may be able to read a thermometer but may not know what is being measured. The thermometer in a mix of ice and salt may read −8°C. The child may say, ‘It’s measuring the cold’. We, as teachers, can then see what it is that the child needs to know; we also know that to provide a lecture on thermodynamics would not help them at all. We know that small steps and a clear context for new vocabulary are a good way to proceed and that modelling a task can help.
      - We know that talking the child through the process or concept means that at any stage the child can put to use the safety net of questioning. So this is what we do. As Bruner puts it, we reduce the degrees of freedom so that success is possible – whether in acquiring a skill or understanding a concept. This is scaffolding. We use scaffolding, through talk, to break down the task into achievable steps and move the child through them, then check if they are able to do the task alone.
    - - Organising talk Since effective learning is linked to the ability to think and talk about the relevant ideas, we must provide children with opportunities to discuss and express their thoughts. Meaningful discussion can take place during small-group work or whole-class contexts. Children require clear guidelines to work collaboratively in both small-group and whole-class situations (Chapter 5). They should be aware that their talk together is an important part of their work and they need to be taught the strategies and skills which will help every child take an active part in exploratory talk.
      - Worksheets The choice of resources can have a profound effect on the quality of the children’s learning and their attitudes to the topic. The disheartening phrase ‘death by worksheet’ describes the dull nature of the learning experiences which such resources may provide. But well-designed worksheets can be a very useful way of organising some activities. Worksheets should not be overused to the point where children’s activity is just focused on ‘filling them in’. Whatever resources are used, practical or otherwise, they need to provide the children with something interesting to talk about
  - - - Pg 302-3
        
        ^Active learning • either through hands-on use of materials or discussion-means that for some of the time at least the child will be in groups.
        
        This involves making decisions about how best to organise the lesson; whether and when children will work in groups or as a whole class; whether other adults need to be involved if, for instance, the work involves taking children out of the classroom
        
        Feasey (2011- 48) recommends four as the optimum working group, since 'with larger groups the teacher runs the risk of having children who are off task'. She also suggests that for discussion, 'as with practical work, four is the optimum size where children can discuss in pairs and then share ideas within the foursome
        
        On the question of group composition, the work by Howe and colleagues the early 1990s, comparing mixed-ability groups with groups selected basis of ability, is still relevant. Howe (1990) and Howe et al. (1992) undertook study of group composition that convincingly demonstrated that compared with groups where children had similar initial ideas, those where the ideas were more varied made most progress. Crucially the progress made by these mixed groups was more apparent six weeks after the group work than it was immediately after the lessons. Although other explanations for these differences were sought none In a later
        
        In a later study, Howe and colleagues (2007) identified some key principles of group organisation in primary science. Their study was designed to draw together all the features that various research projects have identified as important in successful group work to explore their effects on attainment. Their findings revealed that classes where teachers supported group work effectively made greater progress than others. This was equally so in classes of mixed-age pupils. Their evidence showed the conditions in which pupils engaged in productive dialogue, including the sharing of ideas discussing disagreements, sharing and explaining ideas. These behaviours were more likely to occur where teachers monitored groups briefing children on the task in hand, ensuring good management, encouraged the development of good group skills and modelled good interaction skills
      - Pg. 316-18
        
        In addition they need to learn how to work in groups and to plan together as a team.
        
        Naylor et al. (2007) confirm a point made by Barnes (1976) and noted 7 that argument and discussion are richest when the teacher is not present, Group work provides this opportunity since the teacher cannot be present in than one group at a time.
        
        Almost invariably practical work needs to be undertaken in small groups. It is necessary for the efficient use of resources but most importantly for the opportunity it affords children to share ideas, to challenge each other's ideas and to reflect on their learning.
    - - Sufficient time
        value of allowing time for pupils to explore and think about what they are finding may mean.
        It is evident that practical inquiry takes time if children are to learn. 'Seeing for themselves' is important especially for young children who, unlike adults, have not got a wealth of other experiences to fall back on when trying to make sense of events. Adults might be able to learn in more abstract ways but children need both physical and intellectual interaction with the world. The most effective teachers do not allow the pressure to move on to prevent them from allowing the children time to explore.
      - Being clear about the purpose
        It is clear that learning by seeing and doing is much more successful if the pupil the purpose of the activity and can therefore focus on what is important
      - Being clear about the purpose
        It is clear that learning by seeing and doing is much more successful if the pupil the purpose of the activity and can therefore focus on what is important
      - Set in a real context
        Discussion among pupils and between teacher and pupils is seen as key to real learning with teachers modelling ways of asking questions and exploring ideas.
      - Children feel challenged intellectually and in terms of the skills and processes they need to employ. Children enjoy thinking hard, employing a range of thinking skills and developing through hands-on and minds-on experience, their ability to learn independently
      - The problem is set in a social meaningful context such that there is a reason to puzzle over observations to raise interesting questions to take care when collecting the right sort of evidence and to make sense of that evidence in light of the original problem that was posed. Meaningful contexts give a reason to communicate findings to others
    - - Pg. 194-5
        
        Setting up activities in a way that requires genuine collaboration in pairs or small groups so that the effort of all those involved matters and all obliged to pull their weight.
        
        Labelling children either as groups or individuals. This can happen consciously, as when children are streamed or grouped by ability and are referred to by a label, or unconsciously. It is difficult to imagine that being labelled 'the B class' reinforced by the uniformly low level of work expected, does not transfer to the children's self-image.
        
        Children are acutely sensitive to being treated in different ways from others and are not deceived by bein| described as the 'green' group when this means that they are the 'slow' ones.
        
        Children are acutely sensitive to being treated in different ways from others and are not deceived by being described as the 'green' group when this means that they are the 'slow' ones.
        
        Involving children in identifying some reasonable objectives for the activity and some ways of achieving these objectives.
      - Pg. 300-1
        
        Ideas that can be achieved in a lesson will be 'small' ones (Chapter 2)
        
        As children's experiences are extended over a series of lessons, it becomes possible for them to link events which are explained in different ways to form 'bigger' ideas which have wider applications.
        
        Teachers need to have the big ideas in view even though the goals communicated directly and indirectly to the children will be the small ones specific to the lesson.
      - Pg. 303-4
        
        In a later study, Howe and colleagues (2007) identified some key principles of group organisation in primary science. Their study was designed to draw together all the features that various research projects have identified as important in successful group work to explore their effects on attainment. Their findings revealed that classes where teachers supported group work effectively mad* greater progress than others. This was equally so in classes of mixed-age pupils. Their evidence showed the conditions in which pupils engaged in productive dialogue, including the sharing of ideas, discussing disagreements, sharing and explaining ideas. These behaviours were more likely to occur where teachers monitored groups briefing children on the task in hand, ensuring good time management, encouraged the development of good group skills and modelled good interaction skills
    - - Pg. 168-9
        Scaffolding is particularly important in relation to ideas which cannot be tested out in practice. It is difficult, for example, for children to understand that, if a moving object stops there must be a force acting to stop it. Many children accept or offer the reason as being 'friction' but don't go as far as realising that without friction the object would not stop moving. Scaffolding is necessary here, just as it is in relation to ideas about the Earth in space, the causes of day and night, the seasons, and phases of the Moon (see Lisa's scaffolding of these ideas in Chapter These are cases where the teacher may have to lead children to take a few steps without realising why until they can look back. For example, children are unlikely to decide on their own to make a model of the Sun Moon and Earth to explain why we see the moon in different phases. So the teacher takes the initiative and sets up the situation that enables the children to 'see' a spherical object looking like a half-moon and then they can make the connection
      - Pg. 201
        Furthermore, teachers who had a clear idea about the learning outcomes they wanted their pupils to achieve were likely to spend time offering support and 'scaffolding' the children's learning while they played.
      - Pg. 330
        Know where children are in the development of ideas and inquiry skills and use this information to provide opportunities and support (scaffolding) for progress.
        some standards of practice for teachers which incorporate aspects of good teaching, such as formative assessment procedures, discussion and time for reflection.
- - - - The climate of a classroom can refer to the way in which teachers and pupils interact and can also include the environment which the teacher creates in order to develop) a productive working setting. This can demand a lot from both teachers and pupils and developing an ethos whereby good work is celebrated and pupils' self-esteem raised. The physical environment of a classroom can be a good indicator of the attitudes and beliefs of the teacher and can show children the value which is placed upon their learning. The case study below shows the importance of reviewing classroom environments and sharing good practice.
      - Class management in a writing lesson Ranjit had made a promising start to a placement with a Year 5 class in a large suburban school. He had established good Relationships with the children and the class teacher had complimented him on the quality of his planning and his general attitude. However, the first two writing lessons he took had not gone so well and he had felt pressured by children's constant requests for help and by the general noise levels in the classroom, which he felt accounted for the limited amounts of writing produced by many children. Ranjit discussed his concerns with the class teacher who suggested he observe the teacher in the parallel class who was noted for being able to get her children to produce high-quality writing. Ranjit arranged this and asked if he could simply observe rather than getting involved in the lesson as he wanted to see how a teacher managed a whole class with minimal support (the class had a TA for one child who was on the autism spectrum). Ranjit enjoyed watching a successful lesson in which the class continued writing stories they had begun in the previous lesson, and noted the following.' The objectives and success criteria for the lesson were made clear beginning of the lesson, which began with the teacher talking positively about examples of the children's writing from the previous lesson. She drew attention to the qualities of the work, but also spent time talking about common misconceptions such as misuse of possessive Apostrophes, and things she would Iike to see in the current lesson including more subordinate clauses.Children were given opportunities to discuss about their work, but these were interspersed with periods of quiet writing. Children did not leave their tables to ask for help. They could not spell a word they had a try at it or wrote as much as they could in pencil and then discussed it with the teacher when she came to their table The teacher patrolled the classroom to provide individual support and to talk to groups, while occasionally stopping the whole class to share good work and good use of subordinate clauses by reading extracts from children's work aloud
    - - Pg. 146
        A teacher's abilities to make efficient use of lesson time, to coordinate classroom resources and space, and to manage ^students' behaviour with clear rules that are consistently enforced, are all relevant to maximising the learning that can take place. These Environmental factors are necessary for good learning rather than its direct Components,
      - 157-9
        Siraj-Blatchford et al. (2011: 1) conducted observations in 82 Year 5 classrooms and found that Year 5 teachers in excellent schools (defined as those which are academically effective with good quality I pedagogy) exhibited the following: Organisational skills: Teachers share clear Learning objectives with their pupils, ensure all pupils understand the objectives and associated concepts, have extremely well-organised resources and well-established classroom routines Established a positive classroom climate: Relationships between children and between adults a^id children are characterised by a sense of liking and mutual respect, classrooms are happy places, I children are less disruptive and behaviour management is handled sensitively. Personalised their teaching: Teachers are sensitive to the needs and interests of their pupils provide a variety of resources to suit the individuals in their classes are more likely to make explicit the links between learning in the classroom and the world outside the classroom and provide homework directly linked to what children are learning in their less Used dialogic teaching and learning: Children work collaboratively, take in instructional conversations in literacy have opportunities to receive evaluative feedback and spend more time learning and performing analysis. In Maths, these teachers use analysis and maths discourse, share maths 'authority' with the children and their pupils have greater depth of knowledge and understanding more frequent and better use of the plenary: Teachers in the best schools are about twice as likely as teachers in poor schools to use a plenary and they use it to provide feedback and to allow further discussion exploration and extension.
    - - Pg. 15
        Education Endowment Foundation (EEF), an independent charity focused on breaking the link between family income and educational achievement, funds evaluations of innovative projects aiming to raise pupils' attainment. One of the most well-known and well-used ways of disseminating this information is through the Teaching and Learning Toolkit (https://educatiojaendowmentfoundation.org.uk/ resources/teaching-leaming-toolkit). The EEF also produces other resources and recently has produced a guidance report on Improving Literacy in Key Stage and also Key Stage Two. The guidance for Key Stage Two (EEF 2017) cites seven recommendations. "based on a range of studies into the teaching of literacy:
        Support pupils to develop fluent reading capabilities which in turn supports comprehension, through guided oral reading instruction and repeated Teaching reading comprehension strategies through modelling and supported practice. writing composition strategies through modelling and practice. Target teaching and support by accurately assessing pupil needs. high-quality structured interventions to help pupils who are struggling their literacy. 2017:1)
      - pg. 21
        The EEF also found that masteiy learning is more effective when pupils work in groups or teams. Guskey (1990:33) found strong links between mastery learning and cooperative learning, which are 'natural complements to each other.
        EEF indicates that the effects are not consistent, which indicates that 'making mastery learning work effectively is challenging.
        Mastery learning breaks subject matter and learning content into units with clearly specified objectives which are pursued until i|:hey are achieved. Learners work through each block of content in a series of sequential steps! Mastery learning can be contrasted with other approaches which require pupils to move through the curriculum at a pre-determined pace. Teachers seek to avoid unnecessary repetition by regularly assessing knowledge and skills.Those who do not reach the required level are provided with additional tuition, peer support small group discussions, or homework so that they can reach the expected level. (htl ft s^educationendowmentf oundation.org.uk/resources/teaching-learning-toolkit/ mastery-learning/)
    - - 20-2
        Didau (2017: 1) calls mastery a weasel word which means something different to everyone who uses it
        there are four concepts involved in mastery learning: It consists of small discrete units of learning. Units are taught in a logical sequence starting with basic components and then moving to more complex. There is demonstration of master^ at the end of each lesson, and pupils cannot move on until they have mastered what has been taught. There are additional activities for students needing further practice and extension for others.
      - 24-5
        Thomas Guskey (20 X 0) emphasises that most uses of mastery learning originate from the work of Bloom (1971» 1976,1984). Bloom proposed that instead of assessment of pupils' progress at the end of a unit of work checks on progress should be done during the| learning and teaching and provide feedback on each pupil's progress. He went on to set out a strategy for teachers in which the learning content is divided into units requiring one to two weeks instructional time and at key points teachers make use of formative assessment that identifies precisely what individual pupils have learnt. This includes targeted suggestions as to what pupils need to do to master the learning. Pupils then undergo further assessments to check their mastery- Bloom believed that most pupils would be capable of learning done in this way. A body of research has confirmed this and shown that pupils in well-taught mastery learning classes achieve better and gain confidence in their ability to learn (Anderson 1994- Guskey and Pigott 1988' Kulik. Kulik and Bangert-Drowns 1990). Guskey highlights core elements for mastery lemming which are required for this to be effective in the classroom. These consist of the following:
        1 Diagnostic pre-assessment with pre-teaching: This enables the teacher to assess whether pupils have the prerequisite knowledge and skills for a specific unit or aspect of learning* Studies by Deshler and Schumaker (1993) and Vockell (1993) demonstrate the benefits of relatively brief pre-teaching
        for pupils where knowledge and skills are shown to be deficient 2 High-quality group-based initial instruction which engages all pupils is-at the of this approach
        Progress monitoring through regular formative assessment to systematically monitor pupils' progress
        4 High-quality teaching following formative assessment to remedy any problems identified: Teachers often,use peer tutoring or cooperative learning group work to do this
        Second parallel formative assessments which follow any reinforcement or additional teaching and offer pupils further opportunities to demonstrate mastery
        Enrichment or extension activities which are provided to challenge and require any corrective or additional support
    - - Control
        In the schools sampled pupils were self-motivated and not governed by extrinsic factors or task set solely by the teacher. They became authors of their own learning and saw their efforts as worthwhile or as Jeffrey says: 'The learners engaged in taking off and taking over' (2006: 11)
      - Ownership
        In each school pupils learnt for themselves-not for the teacher's, or anyone else. Creative learning in this way was internalised and made a ^difference to pupils. It also engendered a social identity and a sense of belonging- Jeffrey 13) notes: These situations provided assurances for the young participants that manifestations of their'selves' as individual and unique learners were valued and safe because personal perspectives and what might at times be seen as idiosyncrasies were acceptable and contributed to the general dynamic culture. In this way they felt able to be creative and innovative.
      - Relevance
        Relevance refers to learning that is meaningful to the immediate needs and interests of pupils. Pupils in the study were able to bring their own experiences ad imagination to the learning situations. Due to the nature of the activities, They were often able to engage in different ways. They were able to draw oik a range of abilities, or what Gardner (1983) has called 'multi-intelligences'. The activities also altered the teaching relationships as the pupils acted as both teacher and learner through engaging in small groups and undertaking investigations
      - Innovation
        These critical events and the stages they went through encouraged pupils to be curious and take risks and act spontaneously- In this way they were innovative, so that something new is created. A major change has taken place-a new skill mastered, new insight gained, new understanding realised new meaningful knowledge acquired. A radical shift is indicated, as opposed to-more gradual, cumulative learning with which it is complementary. (Jeffrey 201 6:4) These four factors of relevance, control ownership and innovation can act as invaluable guidelines in generating creative learning activities- To help you on this study the following table examines this process runner.
  - - - Certain key ingredients need to be in place for the learning to be cooperative. Johnson and Johnson's (1999) extensive work in this field set out five basic elements that are needed for
        e: Positive interdependence: students must feel that they need each other in order to complete
        the group's task' they 'sink or swim' together. Individual accountability: cooperative learning groups are successful only when every
        member has learned the material or has helped with and understood the assignment. Group processing: this involves giving students time and procedures to analyse how well their groups are functioning and how well they are using the necessary skills The processing helps all group members achieve while maintaining effective working relationships among members
        Small group skills: students do not necessarily come to school with the social skills they need to collaborate effectively with others* teachers need to teach the appropriate communication, decision-making and conflict management skills to students and provide the motivation to use these skills in order for groups to function effectively
        Face-to-face interaction: the interaction patterns and verbal exchanges chat take place among students in carefully structured cooperative learning groups benefit their learning.
    - - Pg. 226-7
        The National Curriculum includes a section on inclusion, which states that 'teachers should set high standards for every pupil' (DfE, 2013- p8). By using drama Alex was able to engage the pupils and help them to reach their full potential.
      - pg. 241
        Inclusion-How will all children be successfully included? Some tasks are naturally inclusive: a five-year-old who has just learned to write independently a ten-year-old and an adult could all write a story and could all be challenged by the task and experience success in it. Reading tasks are more likely to need to be differentiated. While a high quality, rich text is likely to allow readers at all levels to gain something from it, in terms of understanding and response, it may simply not be accessible to some children whose word-reading skills are not well developed. When planning, there are several approaches that could be taken. The text could be read to the children, but this denies them the independent reading experience which they need in order to become better readers. They could be provided with a modified text-shorter simpler in terms of words used and sentence structure. They could read the text with an adult before the session to help sort out any difficulties and ensure that their familiarity with the text gives them a head start,
    - - the reciprocal social nature of talk;
      - the ability to reflect on learning through talk
      - the ability to use the resource of language (such as vocabulary);
      - to enhance learning;
    - - 267
        The concept of mastery learning has come to the fore in recent years almost half a century since it was introduced by Bloom (1968), and it has been linked with an interest in England in high-achieving Base Asian education systems. Mastery learning is currently being discussed largely in terms of mathematics, and an evaluation of the Mathematics Mastery programme in English schools showed children in the programme making one month's additional progress in a year (Education Endowment Foundation 2015). . However, mathematics and English are very different subjects and if the mastery learning approach is to be applied to English, there needs to be consideration first of what mastery in that subject might look like, and second whether the teaching approach associated with the concept is appropriate to English.
      - 269
        In attempting to learn lessons from those successful East Asian education systems and the mastery learning approach several possible factors have been identified. These include: believing that all pupils are capable of achieving high standards; planning for all children to move through curriculum units at the same pace, while providing individual support for those who might otherwise not master the content• a very carefully planned curriculum, with well-focused lessons and resources; studying fewer topics but in more depth; practice and consolidation of new learn
        careful questioning to assess learning, and regular assessment' high quality textbooks. 2014)
        None of these, apart perhaps from the last looks particularly different from what many schools in this country might consider to be their own practice. How useful then is the concept of mastery learning, and in particular in relation to English? Mastery depending on exactly what is to be mastered, can be seen as involving secure understanding of concepts, strong subject knowledge and very good skills, and the ability to apply all of these in meaningful contexts. Mastery does of course, depend very much on the age and stage of the child and the aspect of English being considered. Mastery in relation to speaking and listening will not look the same at four and eleven. It can only be judged in relation to the curriculum and age-related expectations. In terms of aspects of English, mastery of word reading is very different from mastery of language comprehension- as the Simple View of Reading (Rose 2006) suggests, reader may be able to decode texts quickly and accurately but not gain a clear picture of what they mean- another reader may read slowly and inaccurately, and yet be able to gain a deep understanding of texts. The ultimate challenge of application is seen very clearly in writing, here children use their knowledge of text types and both compositional and transcriptional kills to produce successful pieces.
      - 274-6
        Mastery of writing involves not only mastery of the writing process, but also knowledge of a range of text types. Even young writers often demonstrate understanding of the organisation and stylistic features of different text types such as information books letters or instructions. By Upper Key Stage 2 some writers will have mastered different fiction genres such as historical fiction or mystery stories and may even be able to produce parodies of text types. This is the 'deep understanding' referred to in maths mastery. It goes beyond an ability to reproduce a text type to understanding of the possibilities as well as the constraints of the genre and an understanding of how its rules may be bent or even broken for effect. It also involves a constant monitoring while writing of the intended purpose audience.
        
        It is important that teachers have a clear view of what mastery of reading, writing, speaking and listening looks like at different ages. This is what they are aiming at. Every lesson should a step on the way to that goal. But it is also important to consider whether the teaching approach associated with mastery learning works for English. The strategies of breaking learning into small seeps keeping the class together, and not moving on until the learning is ire might seem most relevant to phonics, and indeed the Primary National Strategy's Communication Language and Literacy Development programme (2006) advocated exactly approach with catch-up interventions for children in danger of falling behind. Oddly enough, is precisely the area where many schools have chosen instead to teach children in separate groups working at very different paces with the gap between the groups often growing wider as time goes on. Of course the danger of some children becoming thoroughly disengaged because pace of learning is too slow for them is obvious and this is why Bloom recognised that enrichment and extension within the whole-class teaching is essential. For example in a Year 1 class, learning the 'ea' grapheme while some children might sort simple CVC words such as bead, head mean deaf, beak and dead others might also have words with adjacent consonants such as bread and dream, or two syllable words such as header, reader feather and breathing (and, indeed might also explore the challenges of great and bread, or read and lead}-
        
        In writing, classes are much more likely to work together on units focusing on a particular text type. This, though is where Bloom's picture of the constantly unsuccessful student may be seen, with some children at the end of each unit producing a weak piece of writing, an< then moving on to a new unit. What mastery learning would indicate is that such children more regular practice of the writing task with early formative feedback and focused feedback on what aspects of the text type they have mastered and what still needs to be achieved. This does not necessarily mean writing several stories, or recounts, or discussions. but could also involve time spent discussing their writing and redrafting. The formative assessment should also be used to inform intervention. For example, if some children have not organised the information in a non-chronological report effectively, rather than provide a list of subheadings which does the organising for them they need to practise grouping pieces of information logically.
        
        heading comprehension is perhaps the most difficult aspect of English to link to mastery learning. While a unit on traditional stories could be assessed in terms of the children's knowledge of the characteristics of the genre, or skills such as skimming and scanning can be taught and assessed, it is difficult to imagine a unit on making complex inferences, with assessment at the beginning and end to check whether the children have learned to make such inferences. On the other hand, there is a clanger in simply saying that reading comprehension is addressed in a wide range of contexts over a very long time-scale which is that it is not addressed effectively at all. The University of York's Reading for Meaning project (Clarke et al, 2010) demonstrated that carefully planned interventions delivered by well-trained teaching assistants could result in significant long-term improvement in children's comprehension, Topping (2016) suggests that peer tutoring in reading can have a significant impact tutor as well as the tutee.
        
        Careful assessment is crucial to well-focused teaching. While analysis of end of Key Stage reading tests can give valuable information as to which aspects of comprehension both a cohort a whole and individual children find difficult regular formative assessment through noting children's responses to texts during guided reading are more important in planning teaching, Children need to be aware what the goal is: they should be familiar with metalanguage such as inference for example, and need clear teaching including modelling, of how good readers make both simple and complex inferences. Perhaps the most important message from mastery learning teachers of reading is that of high expectations of all pupils. The links with mindset theory (Dweck 2012) are clear. Young readers need to know chat some texts are difficult to understar id and require effort and that it is good to challenge ourselves with such texts sometimes.
        
        The mastery learning approach is unlikely to revolutionise primary schools. In their evaluation of the Mathematics Mastery programme for the Education Endowment Foundation mentioned earlier, Jerrim and Vignoles (2015) weighed its modest impact of a month's additional progress against possible costs such as increased preparation time and the need for professional development for teachers. The Foundation suggested that it might be better to consider it as one strategy among a number possibly to be used for particularly difficult topics rather than for all lessons, and there was also a concern over longer term use, as it appeared to become les- s effective over time.
        
        Perhaps rather than attempting to import the approach from Shanghai to this country, and from mathematics to English, the concept of mastery is of most value in reinforcing our understanding of some key factors in effective teaching, and also in raising some important questions. First, as the Carter review of initial teacher training (2015) pointed out, good teaching is dependent on strong subject knowledge. Teachers also need to have a good grasp of subject specific pedagogy, knowing what mastery looks like how to break down learning into small steps where appropriate, and how to assess that learning. They need to be able to on a range of strategies to support any children who are taking longer to grasp a also be able to plan challenging enrichment and extension activities for any children who grasp a concept very quickly. This raises an important question about the expectation schools that all learning tasks should be differentiated for learners of different 'abilities'. Mastery learning does indicate that teachers need to recognise and plan for individual needs, but that this needs to be based on assessment evidence rather than on assumptions about groups of children. Beyond this is the key question of whether we do genuinely believe that the vast majority of children are capable of achieving high standards in English.
    - - Success criteria-How will you know if the children have achieved the learning objective Success criteria can be difficult to identify if the aim is, for example, to create a character Including physical characteristics personality attributes and some biographical detail s could result in a lively and interesting pen-portrait or a dull one which simply does not bring the character to life. There is a danger that we select features which are easy to identify rather than being important. For example, it is possible to write instructions which have numbers and time connectives (and do we really need both?), imperative verbs and appropriate layout, but which do not give enough information to make sense and allow the reader to follow them successfully. It is important to try to pin down what constitutes success, and this should be based on the analysis of examples of the text type which has already taken place. If children have already read analysed and performed several playscripts, they are in a good position to decide what makes for a successful one. Success criteria are best arrived at through discussion before children embark on the task, and more discussion afterwards, rather than simply being presented to them (although teachers will have thought carefully about what they will be looking for).
      - Inclusion-How will all children be successfully included? Some tasks are naturally inclusive: a five-year-old who has just learned to write independently a ten-year-old and an adult could all write a story and could all be challenged by the task and experience success in it. Reading tasks are more likely to need to be differentiated. While a high quality, rich text is likely to allow readers at all levels to gain something from it, in terms of understanding and response, it may simply not be accessible to some children whose word-reading skills are not well developed. When planning, there are several approaches that could be taken. The text could be read to the children, but this denies them the independent reading experience which they need in order to become better readers. They could be provided with a modified text-shorter simpler in terms of words used and sentence structure. They could read the text with an adult before the session to help sort out any difficulties and ensure that their familiarity with the text gives them a head start,
      - Learning objectives-What is the key learning objective? Having a number of learning objectives may make the teaching unfocused and then children are less likely to make progress. Of course, there may be continuing objectives (referred to by some teachers as ALF* Always Looking For) such as punctuation, but both teacher and children should have a clear view as to what the main focus is. We do not want children to think that remembering capital letters, full stops and 'finger' spaces matters as much as writing something of interest to the reader.
      - Use of other adults-How will adults be deployed throughout the lesson? If teaching assistants are present, what is their role during whole-class teaching and when children are working independently, do they usually work with low-attaining pupils? If so, why and what is the impact? Are they simply helping children to do a task which is too difficult for them? Are they 'keeping children on task' and, if so, what is it about the task which has not engaged the children? If they always work with the same group do these children start to feel they cannot-or do not need to try to-work independently? What is the teacher's role during independent work? Working with a group and a real teaching focus is more likely to be useful than moving around monitoring progress and intervening in an unplanned way.
      - Engagement-How will children be engaged and interested in the lesson? This is perhaps the most important consideration of all. If children are not engaged there is unlikely to be any learning.
    - - 31-2
        One clear way to promote effective talk to is to review the use of teachers' questioning. Research (Galton et al1999) shows that teachers usually ask closed questions, such guess what I am thinking?' type, where the teacher has a clear idea of the answer children have to guess it, rather than open questions that genuinely seek to explore children's understanding and views. Myhill et al. (2006 p68) argue when a teacher asks a question, it is well understood by children, she already knows the answer or a range of possible answers, In order to progress beyond this and enhance the potential of talk for learning, it is important to develop a range of questioning,
        • Use a 'no-hands up' rule. This tactic directs questions at particular pupils (rather than a general question and all pupils put their hands up) and has the potential to differentiate the question according to the ability of pupil
      - 253
        By becoming skilled with questions themselves, children begin to learn to self-assess, which is important when developing deep understanding in any learners.
      - 254-5
        Ofsted's 2012 report Moving English Forward recognises that although preparation for tests is important, this needs to b appropriate and not began too early to avoid limiting the range of the curriculum. School; should remember there is no such thing as a 'perfect test' and it would be impossible for one test to examine pupils on all aspects of learning.
    - - It was the Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who saw our use of language as serving two purposes: first as a 'cultural tool' for sharing and developing knowledge, supporting social interactions, and second, as a 'psychological tool* to help organise our individual thoughts. Vygotsky emphasised that thought is not merely expressed in words but exists because of them. He also developed the concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) which is defined as:
        the distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers. (Vygotskv,1978,p86)
      - Bruner (1985) built on this concept and suggested that the learner passes through mental developmental phases, which are supported by structured learning experiences. In addition, J3runer concurs rhar speech is a primary mechanism for thought and therefore it is vitally important for children to have the opportunity to talk through their ideas. Burner's term for the support chat adults provide in the learning process is 'scaffolding', whereby an adult varies the level of support, gradually withdrawing it as the child gains in competency.
      - The development of pedagogy that exploits this methodology has been termed 'dialogic teaching' where effective questioning promotes and extends learning. Dating back to Socrates and what is termed 'Socratic questioning', the importance of dialogue is highlighted by Bakhtin (1986, p 168): '/ «« answer does not give rise to a new question from itself, it falls out of the dialogue. The value of this process, as Nystrand et al. (1997, p72) emphasise, lv. the extent to which instruction requires students to think, not just report someone else's thinking.
    - - 244
        Shared reading in English lessons Reading texts to children does not give them practice. In the early stages shared reading where the class reads the text together is an experience which challenges and supports developing readers. Older children should in general be expected to read the text silently to themselves.
      - 198-9
        We have seen that an important part of our role as teachers of writing is to make the whole process explicit and to scaffold writing experiences so that children are able to write well independently- One way of thinking about this is to see our role as one that changes,
        Modelled writing-watch me: demonstrating the writing process.
        Shared writing-take part with me: scribbing the children's thought Supported composition experimenting together: trying out language, vocabulary and sentence structures.
        Guided writing hut a go with my support: scaffolded independence. Independent writing* over to yow. applying learning independently
        Shared writing involves collaboration with the children asking for ideas, accepting some but not all, extending vocabulary and shaping the writing to fit the purpose and audience. This approach temporarily removes some of the problems of orchestrating writing skills provides opportunities for partner talk and discussion and helps children to clarify their ideas.
        Supported composition can offer closely scaffolded support, You might, for example, ask the children to work in pairs or individually to orally rehearse or write a phrase or sentence linked to the learning objective. This allows them to rehear the flow fluency and fee 1 of their words (Cremin, 2009) and transfer the patterns, structures and cadences of the text into their spoken, and then written language. This can be done on mini whiteboards perhaps followed by the 'show me' strategy where children hold up their suggestions. This allows you to make an immediate assessment and to identify and share some of the good examples produced.
        Guided writing provides an additional supported step between modelled and shared writing and independent writing. It can take place at any point during the teaching sequence and is where you draw together a group of writers with similar learning needs. A guided writing session might support a group of children who are finding if hard to capture ideas for their writing or might focus with another group on the use of more precise vocabulary. At a later stage, children might be supported to self-assess and review their writing.
        Finally, children need enough time and space to write for themselves. Independent writing provides children with the opportunity to use all the skills and understandings they have learned throughout the teaching sequence, and the tool kits you created earlier will provide a helpful scaffold.
      - 242
        Shared reading was an approach introduced in England by the National Literacy Strategy; it was seen & step between reading to children and independent reading by children (DfEE, 1998, Module 1, ) which for younger children gave valuable practice in applying decoding skills in a supportive context, and for all ages provided opportunities for discussion of texts.
  - - - helping an independent or guided group during the literacy session;
      - telling or reading a story to a small group of children;
      - making audio-recordings of stories for children to listen to;
      - listening to a child reading individually;
      - making books for children to write their own stories in;
      - helping to put together home-made storysacks;
      - observing a child for assessment purposes;
      - helping children who are using icT;
      - sitting with children in the reading area and talking with them about the books they choose to read at school or at home;
      - keeping records of books borrowed from the school library for children to read at home
    - - Pg. 69
        Create a classroom environment that is full of exciting reading material beautifully displayed books, posters, labels, advertisements dictionaries captions, notices and instructions. Much of this happens in the home, but you should also create classroom environment that supports children's knowledge of, and interest in, literacy, so that a print-rich classroom provides a sound basis for learning. Here are some suggestions.
      - Pg. 195-9
        Planning an exciting and stimulating school and classroom environment that supports and extends opportunities for English is| a challenge. Many of have seen large unpromising Victorian school buildings, whose walls and classrooms were never designed with displays or group work in mind.
        gear in mind that the environment is for children to use and to learn in. They should feel at ease when they are reading, writing* discussing. exploring, touching, listening asking questions, solving problems and making decisions. Getting children interested in their environment also means helping them to take | responsibility for feeding pets, watering plants and tidying displays, so that they develop a pride in and sense of ownership over their classroom
    - - Grouping-grouping (or pairing) children of similar ability for targeted support or pairing with a more able chil^, teaching assistant (TA) or language support teacher.
      - Resources use resources that support children's needs such as writing frames or word banks for poor spellers. For children with EAL you might need to ensure that target vocabulary is available in a written form.
      - Support-offering additional adult or peer assistance, from a TA, language support teacher or more experienced child.
      - Content selecting appropriately so that there is content that suits most children with additional content available to some. This might mean some children completing twelve comprehension questions where others complete ten.
      - Time giving more or less time to complete a given task can make the task more suitable to the particular children.
      - There are a number of ways that you might differentiate literacy learning provision for children in your class, including the wide range of abilities found in most classes ind the needs of most children with SEN. These include the following.
        Presentation-planning to use a variety of media to present ideas, offering vocabulary or extra diagrams to those who need more support. Writing frames might be a form of presentation to help writers who need extra support where more confident writers do not require such support.
      - Task-matching tasks to children's abilities. This can mean different tasks for different children. It is sometimes a good idea to offer different tasks that address the same objectives to different children so that they can achieve success
    - - Cloze activities: Pg. 125-6
        Group cloze
        The cloze exercise consists of a text with several deletions that children have to work together to complete. The following brief example will illustrate the activity.
        John was a very lucky boy. He had been given lots of presents for his birthday and had had a __ birthday party. He was still rather sad, though, because the thing he had wished for ___ all had not happened. He had wanted so much to have a real __ of his own; perhaps a dog, or even a cat. But Mum and Dad had said that there was no room in the flat, and John knew they were __. He was still disappointed, though.
        The solution to these deletions lies in the combination and application of information found elsewhere in the text and in the reader's previous experiences. It also involves the application of understanding about syntactic structures. reader has sometimes to read on past deleted word s, and also to have some kind of affective response to the story. In attempting to complete the problem posed by the text the reader has to give it detailed concentration and respond to its meaning. If the each reader puts forward tentative solutions and these are affirmed, questioned or extended by other members of the group
      - Prediction: pg. 126-8
        Group prediction
        The prediction activity involves a group of children discussing, together with you, a text of which they all have a copy- The discussion should be guided by three principles.
        
        Establishing purposes for reading. The children should be reading to actually find something out, whether it be to confirm a guess as to what would happen in the text or to find evidence in the text for their opinions about events or characters.
        
        Reasoning while reading. The readers should make reasoned deductions from the information presented in the text, balancing together various facts, statements, hints and possibilities, and checking them against their knowledge of the world and its likelihoods.
        
        Testing predictions. The readers should test out predictions they make on the basis of what they read, by checking them against the actual information in the text.
      - Sequencing: Pg. 128-9
        Group sequencing
        The group sequencing activity is based on the same principles as group prediction in that it involves a group of children formulating hypotheses about a text and evaluating these with reference to the information the text contains. It is also similar to the cloze procedure in that it involves children l n checking the language they read against their own intuitive knowledge of language structure. The activity involves presenting a text to a group of children in sections, but giving them no overt clues about how the sections should ideally be arranged. The children have to rearrange the sections into an order that makes sense and which they can justify by reference to the conceptual or linguistic flow of the text. The text may be split into:
        paragraphs which will focus readers' attention on the flow of meaning within a text;
        sentences-which will also concentrate attention on the flow of meaning, but will introduce the importance of linguistic cues, for example sequence words such as 'next' and 'afterwards', a causal words such as 'therefore' and 'because';
        lines-which will shift attention to predominantly structural cues, especially punctuation and noun/pronoun relationships.
      - Text Restructuring: Pg. 129-31
        Text restructuring
        The essence of this strategy is to encourage children to read information and then show the information in some other way. In doing so they have to pass the information through their brain-that is work at understanding it. Restructuring can also give you access to children's levels of understanding and thus can be a useful assessment strategy.
        One relatively straightforward approach to text restructuring when working with stories is simply to ask children to draw a map to show where the events in the story took place. Figure 9.2 shows a map drawn by a pair of eight-year-olds after reading Hannah Giffard's story Red Fox on the Move.
      - Word Processors and: Pg. 178
        Group work with word processors
        There are many other ways in which on-screen activities can support shared writing at word and sentence levels and even whole-text work. Some of these include asking groups of children to:
        • identify different categories of words e.g. highlighting all nouns pink all pronouns green, etc.;
        •alter existing text using, for example alternative adjectives, verbs, synonyms, etc. and using different coloured text for any changes;
        •use cut and paste to reinstate the correct order of a short story in which the order of the paragraphs has been changed;
        • use the 'Find and Replace' function to replace overused words such as 'said' and 'nice';
        •use the 'Find' function on its own to search for common spelling patterns, e.g. all words ending; in 'ing' or containing 'ea'.
    - - EYFS and KS1: Pg. 93
        Guided reading and writing also provide intensive teaching times. Each week you will choose objectives for each group of children and some of these will be composing or sentence-level objectives. Such tasks might include planning a story, character or setting, drafting instructions or revising a text provided by the teacher. In guided writing, you can undertake more detailed discussion than in shared writing and differentiate the activity more closely through support and questioning. This means that in guided writing children can often produce work of a higher standard than they would independently. In guided writing, individual whiteboards and magnetic boards are also very useful for sharing ideas and contributions. In guided writing children can produce whole-group texts, plans or revisions but this requires a high level of cooperative skills and they usually produce writing in pairs or individually* In guided writing you may use strategies other than planning, drafting and revising such as offering children sequencing passages to order or passages of writing to complete. These are useful to focus children's attention on specific aspects of language.
      - KS2: Pg. 163-4
        Guided writing is an additional supported step towards independent writing. Children can be offered clear support but the onus is on them to make decisions, compose and revise their texts. There are three main purposes for guided writing.
        
        To help children plan and draft their independent work. You can support this work by helping children to orchestrate all the decisions needed to draft their own text. This might involve children in such things as:
        retelling a story they have previously had read to them where the content is predetermined and their task is to find a way of communicating that content;
        writing an explanatory paragraph following a model they have earlier discussed in shared reading;
        using the computer to rewrite a piece of formal or archaic writing to make it more conversational or modern
        
        To help children revise and edit work already begun. Encourage them to share their writing with the group and:
        • re-read it to check its clarity;
        enhance the vocabulary choices they have made by responding to suggestions from other children; work on strengthening particular words phrases or text sections such as introductions and endings;
        check their use of cohesion, such as consistent use of pronouns use of connectives and consistency of tense
        
        To provide differentiated support for particular children or groups. Children will need greater levels of individual teaching than will be possible in whole class work and you can use guided writing to:
        repeat a shared writing session with more support for the less confident writers
        prepare certain children for a forthcoming shared writing session by previewing the key ideas they will be using;
        stretch more able writers in composing or editing activities;
        work intensively with less able writers.
    - - Phonetics work: Pg. 71
        When you are planning work on phonics and phonological awareness, you need to plan suitable activities that will include al I children and ensure that every child makes progress. You are likely to have children in your class or group who have additional and special educational needs. You may a/so have in the same group or class children who are able, gifted and talented in English. Talk to class teacher co( leagues, take advice from the inclusion leader or teacher responsible for children with special needs and discuss the children with any teaching or learning support assistants who know them well to see what they suggest will help.
      - Planning for SEN children: Pg. 186-9
        In literacy teaching, there is a great advantage in choosing to set learning objectives for all children. This allows children with SEND or EAL to work at the same level as the other children (possibly with additional support) so that they can learn from the demonstrations and models in whole-class or group sessions.
        In many classes you will encounter the 5-10 per cent of children classed as gifted in English.
        Your skills for teaching literacy and English to children with SEN and/or disabilities are important. You should review your skills and address any issues you feel unsure about to make sure you can teach all learners.
        Key skills include:
        planning and teaching for inclusion and access to the English curriculum. This will mean making any necessary adjustments to give children with SEND the opportunities their peers experience. This might include recording spoken instructions, enlarged and simplified texts, provision of time, additional support and all the differentiation strategies discussed above; behaviour management, and an awareness of the emotional and mental health needs of pupils (to build their self-esteem as learners).
        Behaviour and mental health issues do not mean children are less able to learn English. However, if these issues are not addressed properly, they can throw up barriers to effective learning. The behaviour of your class of children and your relationships with individuals make a real difference to your effectiveness as a literacy teacher.
        assessment for learning (learning skills). This is the basis of your differentiation and focused teaching. If you find yourself concerned with the literacy achievement of individuals, despite careful planning differentiation and support you should seek the advice of the SENCO
        an understanding of when professional advice is needed and where to find it. Know the personnel in your school and understand their roles. There are complex areas of SEN you may not be equipped to recognise and your SENCO will help you to keep the records and access the expertise of professionals who can help you.
      - Planning for EAL Children: Pg. 189-91
        Children learning EAL must be supported to access curriculum content while also developing cognitive and academic language within whole-class group and independent contexts. With the exception of children learning EAL who also have learning difficulties it is critical to maintain a level of cognitive challenge consistent with that of the rest of the class.
        Children who are or have become conversationally fluent in English (BICS) will continue to require explicit attention to the development of the academic language associated with the subject (cAlfc and this includes the language of literacy, which is highly abstract and symbolic. Your literacy planning should identify the language demands of the objectives and associated activities. Making sure that EAL learners know and can use the language demanded by the curriculum content of the unit or lesson then becomes an additional objective.
        To identify the language demands of a task, teachers and practitioners must consider the language children will need to understand in order to access an activity. This should take account of the language children require to be able to produce, either orally or written, to demonstrate success i achieving the learning intentions. A simple start is to ensure that you begin each lesson by explaining the key vocabulary being used and offer EAL pupils a visual version of a glossary of terms to pi into their books.
        The development of language is not the only aspect of EAL provision that supports children's literacy leaning in school. The ethos of the school class and lessons is also central in creating sense of belonging. Children's ethnic, religious, social and cultural backgrounds should be represented across the curriculum so that the school truly represents the community it serves and welcomes its members. Ideally, children should see staff from their background in school and parents and ca iers should be welcomed and included in school life, Make sure that you carry out some basic research into the cultural and personal backgrounds of the EAL pupils in Your class.
      - Including children in the school extends to your English teaching. You will need to consider how language is represented in class, what languages are spoken and your choice of texts. displays and the use of languages in these displays should reflect the cultural and linguistic diversity in school. Find out the languages spoken by the children in your class so that you can show places in the world where these languages are spoken include a sentence or two in a display, and just know a few facts about the language. Consider the texts you choose for your class: to read to them and to use for shared and guided reading and writing. The range of fiction should include: stories including British-born characters from various ethnic, cultural and religious backgrounds; stories set in children's heritage countries traditional stories from children's cultures; dual-language books; poetry and drama from a range of cultures; biographies of people from diverse backgrounds who have made a great contribution to society; stories exploring discrimination isolation, racism friendship, change, living in two cultures, etc. The range of non-fiction should include texts which: teach about bias stereotyping, racism, sectarianism and human rights; emphasise the achievements and contributions of people from a range of ethnic backgrounds; explore global development issues past and present and social and economic issues of migration and displacement, etc. These are English teaching issues because you will use these texts for your literacy teaching, for practising literacy skills and also for teaching across the curriculum. You should also consider your own use of language very carefully to meet the needs of your EAL pupils. Sometimes you may need to moderate your speed of delivery to meet the needs of these pupils. Make sure that you repeat and summarise instructions and requires careful not to vary your language too much when you repeat yourself. This can inadvertently pose whole new sets of comprehension challenges which throw up barriers for the EAL pupils. Wherever possible give practical demonstrations to your pupils, including your pupils with EAL. Supporting your words with actions is a highly effective way of conveying a message to them. It is also useful to use drama and action-based tasks with your class including your EAL pupils, to give them chances to achieve in ways which do not offer linguistic challenges. Every pupil with EAL is different has a different language background and learning experience, so there is no 'one size fits air provision for pupils with EAL. You must show your pupils you have high expectation have high expectations for them and that you will support them to meet those expectations.
    - - Some areas where adult helpers can support children's literacy learning are:
        helping an independent or guided group during the literacy session;
        telling or reading a story to a small group of children; ....
        listening to a child reading individually;
        making audio-recordings of stories for children to listen to;
        making books for children to write their own stories in helping to put together home-made storysacks;
        observing a child for assessment purposes;
        helping children who are using ICT;
        sitting with children in the reading area and talking with them about the books they choose to read at school or at home keeping records of books borrowed from the school library for children to read at home.
      - Few teachers would say they have sufficient ICT equipment in their classrooms. You might find that you have to share your electronic hardware and software with other classes, even though many schools have a separate computer suite for whole-class use. Whatever your situation, you will find you have to organise carefully to ensure that each child has an opportunity to use the computer for different purposes. Keep a register of computer use. Many schools now provide printers alongside the computer and children can use word processing packages to produce their own books, magazines or class newsletters.
        ICT covers not only computers, but also more conventional electronic systems-TV, radio, audio and video recorders, telephones, smartphones and cameras. You can use all these creatively to support and develop literacy. CD-ROMs are still available in most classrooms. Select those with interesting text, sound, animation, artwork photographs or video that are motivating for children and that invite them to read and write for a range of purposes.
        Many popular stories are also produced on DVD and Blu-ray and these can form part of a school class or personal collection giving access to texts that are difficult to read independently* Again, having copies of these available means that children can enjoy them over and over again and borrow them to use at home.
    - - EAL Children: Pg. 189-92
        
        Children learning EAL must be supported to access curriculum content while also developing exception of children learning EAL who also have learning difficulties, it is critical to maintain a level of cognitive challenge consistent with that of the rest of the class.
        The work of Cummins (2000) and that of Collier and Thomas (1998) has been central in developing the theory, principles and practice of language and learning of young bilingual learners. they refer to the work of Vygotsky (socially constructed knowledge), Bruner and Maslow (self actualisation) to point out that young learners are affected by attitudes towards them, their culture, language, ethnicity and religion in and out of school. It is not only cognitive and academic development that will impact on their language development, but but also their cultural and social experiences.
        
        However, literacy learning objectives should be right for each child at each stage of their learning and development. If, with appropriate access strategies and support, a child cannot work towards same learning objective as the rest of the class, you may want to track back to an earlier objective. You may also want to discuss this child's progress with the SENCO, to ensure you are making th* most of the options available to you within the school provision.
        
        However, at other times you will also have to consider whether the children have other priority needs that are central to their learning, for example a need to concentrate on some key which mean they have specific, different, learning objectives from the rest of the class. It
        
        In your planning for spoken language and literacy you will need to include the oversight and integration of any provision or programmes in school which are available to support the language or literacy skills of children in your class, even where these are planned to work for groups of children across classes. If children who need this extreme form of differentiated provision can be helped to 'catch up' with their peers and supported to maintain that progress they will achieve much better than if they are left to struggle.
        
        To identify the language demands of a task, teachers and practitioners must consider the language children will need to understand in order to access an activity. This should take account of the Ianguage children require to be able to produce, either orally or written, to demonstrate success in achieving the learning intentions. A simple start is to ensure that you begin each lesson by explaining the key vocabulary being used and offer EAL pupils a visual version of a glossary of terms to put into their books.
        The development of language is not the only aspect of EAL provision that supports children's literacy learning in school. The ethos of the school, class and lessons is also central in creating a sense of belonging. Children's ethnic religious, social and cultural backgrounds should be represented across the curriculum so that the school truly represents the community it serves and welcomes its members. Ideally, children should see staff from their background in school and parents and carers should be welcomed and included in school life. Make sure that you carry out some basic research into the cultural and personal backgrounds of the EAL pupils in your class.
      - SEN Children: Pg. 186-9
        In literacy teaching, there is a great advantage in choosing to set learning objectives for all children. This allows children with SEND or EAL to work at the same level as the other children (possibly with additional support) so that they can learn from the demonstrations and models in whole-class or group sessions.
        In discussion activities, shared or guided reading and writing activities, children may learn as much from the performance of other children as they do from direct teaching by the teacher. If children always work in small groups or in one-to-one provision outside the classroom, they will miss many of the speaking, listening, reading and writing activities which are shared as a class. means they will miss experience not only of those texts but of the models of how teachers and children tackle them. Where children have additional support with language or other special needs, it may be beneficial to include this in class lessons.
        However, literacy learning objectives should be right for each child at each stage of their learning and development. If, with appropriate access strategies and support, a child cannot work towards the same learning objective as the rest of the class you may want to track back to an earlier objective, You may also want to discuss this child's progress with the SENCO, to ensure you are making the most of the options available to you within the school provision
        In your planning for spoken language and literacy you will need to include the oversight and integration of any provision or programmes in school which are available to support the language or literacy skills 0$ children in your class even where these are planned to work for groups of children across classes. If children who need this extreme form of differentiated provision can be helped to 'catch up' with their pee rs and supported to maintain that progress they will achieve much better than if they are left to struggle.
      - The first step in the cycle of planning for individual children or groups of children is assessment evidence, This will include not only tests and more formal assessments but also informed observation and formative assessment (assessment for learning), which is based on knowledge of the priorities for these children. This means knowing the current learning targets of each child and balancing them these children to work on objectives that are that are similar and related to those for the whole class, with the learning provision differentiated, for needs. However, at other times you will also have to consider whether the children have other priority needs that are central to their learning, for example a need to concentrate on some key skills, which mean they have specific different learning objectives from the rest of the class. It may be few instance that some children in your Year 1 class have an identified need to learn the key grapheme phoneme correspondences and that they undertake additional phonics group work led by a teaching assistant. This is such an important priority that it might be undertaken at a time when others in the class are doing a different activity.
      - In a few cases children in your class may have an Education Health and Care (EHC) plan, which is a legal document that describes a child's special educational, health and social care needs as as the extra support that will be given to meet those needs. This support may involve additional assistance with some aspects of learning through interventions such as inclusion in support group s, additional intervention such as speech and language therapy or one-to-one support in the classroom. Where a child has an EHC plan you will work with the school SEN coordinator (SENCO) to ensure you meet the child's language and literacy needs and to maintain close contact with parents and with the child themselves, so there is a clear, shared understanding of how you are supporting this child's language and literacy within and outside the classroom'
- - - - Pg. 58
        and similarly child-centred education does not always equate to the curriculum being expanded.
      - And Learning Theories pg. 69
        
        Behaviourist
        Didactic
        Characteristics:
        learning by transmitting knowledge, telling information, giving instructions to the learner
        teacher controlled
        
        Cognitivist
        Use of orange of styles that stimulate more senses and forms of communication than hearing, i.e. | speaking, using visual aids, demonstrating, etc, Children assess their own performance against criteria
        
        Constructivist
        Child-centred
        Characteristic
        investigative approach to learning reflecting on action to make generalisations teacher acting as facilitator teacher-and child-controlled guided discovery
    - - Pg. 86
        For instance you may feel confident differentiating wort in English but feel uncertain how to either meet the learning needs cf individuals in mathematics or know what makes an activity sufficient^ challenging across the whole curriculum.
        , Differentiation for children who might find this difficult could include resources such as structural counting equipment or arrow cards (which show place value). However, if the outcome was to understand a method such as addition on a number line then differentiation may relate not to resources but to the choice of numbers, with the most challenging being using numbers that crossed the tens boundary, e.g. 57 4- 28, and the least challenging being numbers that were both of less value, e.g. below 30, and did not cross the tens boundary, e.g. 17 +11.
      - Pg. 108-9
        
        Differentiated teaching is not an approach but is based on the ideas of how children learn discussed in Chapters 3 and 4. The child is not seen as a receiver of teacher input from which output is expected; rather the child is seen as an active participant in the learning process, engaging with teacher input by finding ways to understand what the teacher offers whether it be facts or experiences.
        
        Maintaining motivation is a key element of effective teaching and depends on knowledge of the child as well as the subject content, Equally, no one approach can do this for all children so teachers must tailor their approaches to meeting the needs of the majority of children while providing different experiences for others.
      - Pg. 126
        It is assessment that usually takes place before teaching. It could be form of a test but generally it is in the form of an activity or discussion that is at eliciting information about each child's prior knowledge in order help in developing lesson plans and to meet children's needs. Meeting the particular needs of children is made by a variety of adjustments to the planning of teaching called differentiation. As such it requires a secure level of mathematical subject knowledge as well as knowledge of the personal and learning needs of children. Primary teachers have particular opportunities to develop strong knowledge of children's personal and learning needs as they are with children for the majority of the school day
      - Use of Games and Puzzles: pg. 112
        they support differentiation by enabling participation without the constraints of attainment and language barriers. Usually, games contain some form of symbolic representation which allows children to discover and explain relationships. Games and puzzles also allow children to practise skills and support their memory. They can be either teacher- or child-devised and adjusted by resource in terms of numbers used or by rules.
    - - Of Numeracy: pg. 18-19
        Such beliefs were found to fundamental in influencing the way in which they taught. The beliefs were categorised in the following way. Connectionist beliefs based around valuing pupils' methods and teaching strategies with an emphasis on establishing connections within Mathematics.
        •beliefs based around the primacy of teaching and of mathematics as a collection of separate routine* and procedures. discovery - beliefs clustered around the primacy of learning and mathematics as being discovered by pupils, Askew et al, 1997)
        One of the key findings was that effective teachers had connectionist beliefs. They made connections between different ideas and knew how co select and use effective and efficient strategies for calculation. They believed that their pupils could become numerate and that pupils develop strategies and connections between ideas or networks by being challenged to think by use of explanation listening and problem-solving. There was little correlation between the effective teachers in the sample and their qualifications. However, there was evidence that they had undertaken mathematics professional development over an extended time
    - - Pg. 78
        Major categories of teacher knowledge
        •General pedagogical knowledge with special reference to those broad principles and strategies of classroom management and organisation that appear to transcend subject matter
        • Knowledge of learners and their characteristics
        . Knowledge of educational contexts, ranging from workings of the group or classroom, the | governance and financing of school districts to the character of communities and cultures
        • Knowledge of educational ends, purposes, and values, and their philosophical and historical grounds
        •Content Knowledge
        • Curriculum knowledge with particular grasp of the materials and programs that serve as 'tools of the trade' for the teachers
        • Pedagogical content knowledge, that special amalgam of content and pedagogy that is uniquely the province of teachers, their own special form of professional understanding (Shulman, 1987: 8)
      - Pg. 77
        
        Shulman (1986) devised the term ^ Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) to describe the interrelationship between content and pedagogy. He carried out a longitudinal study of secondary teachers in their training and beginning of their teaching career. He believed there to be a symbiotic relationship between what he called'subject matter knowledge' and 'PCK' i.e. the process of developing lea to stronger forms of the subject matter knowledge.
  - - - One of the biggest difficulties when planning mathematics lessons is ensuring that the content of the lesson is challenging but not unattainable for all the children. This is especially difficult when there is a very wide range of mathematical attainment io your class. This is a particular problem in mathematics, where giving the children the same cask and accepting that there will be variations in outcome (as when writing a poem or painting a picture) is often not possible. A common way of differentiating mathematical learning is by task, i.e. different children are given different tasks, which are deemed appropriate. In order to facilitate this kind of differentiation, the children are often grouped by 'ability' (either within a particular class or sometimes across two or more classes) so that children in the same group receive the same cask. In this next section other approaches to differentiation and some of the implications this may have for the planning process, as well as for the children concerned are considered.
      - While there is not scope in this chapter for a full discussion about grouping it is worth considering the criteria you might use to determine how the children are organised. Children are often grouped by ability'. However, there are several problems with this simple notion of mathematical 'ability'. Mathematics is a broad subject and there is no guarantee that a child who finds work with numbers more of a challenge will find the same challenges when engaging in spatial thinking. If children are always in a particular group for mathematics it is likely that some will be under-challenged in some lessons. When planning mathematics lessons, give careful consideration to the way thac your children are grouped. Boaler (2010) is clear in her view chat grouping children by ability' does considerable harm in conveying messages to them about their mathematical
      - If simply putting children into groups of similar ability' and giving them more demanding tasks (differentiation by task) has its drawbacks, you may wish to consider alte
        
        differentiation by resources;
        Many children find the move from concrete representations of mathematical ideas to more symbolic or abstract representations difficult (Hughes, 1986). Providing children with concrete materials to support their mathematical thinking is common practice. As children's competence and understanding develop, they become better able to use and manipulate abstract symbols. One way of differentiating mathematical tasks is to provide more resources for children who are not yet ready to make the move to more abstract ways of thinking. This form of differentiation enables all the children class to work on the same mathematics, but with different resources.
        
        differentiation by peer support;
        
        differentiation by adult support;
        There are several ways of differentiating work by the level of support. You may choose co ask your TA if you are lucky enough to have one, to work with a particular group or roups. Differentiation is about making the mathematics challenging and appropriate for all the children in the class. The TA could equally work with any group of children in the class. You may choose to work with a particular group of children to provide additional support or challenge.
        
        differentiation by outcome;
        is considerable evidence (Boaler, 2010) that children derive a great benefit from working together in 'mixed ability' groups. It is possible in this situation that the children could all be given the same task or activity and that the differentiation comes through the outcomes that the children produce. Planning mathematics lessons in this way requires a different kind of mathematical task, one that can be characterised by the phrase 'low threshold high ceiling'. Such tasks are simple enough for all the children to be able to make a start and to contribute something, but are not limiting so that some children car them mathematically more demanding. Planning such tasks is more demanding than giving children closed tasks where there are specific answers, but arguably leads to much richer mathematical learning. Planning and teaching in this way requires a shift focus away from answers to the children's mathematical thinking and reasoning
        
        differentiation by choice.
        Consider the possibility of giving the children a choice about the nature of the resources chat they might use to tackle a particular mathematical task. Clearly you should retain a degree of control and you may well want to encourage certain children (who are possibly a little over-optimistic) to use resources and others (who are possibly less confident or who just enjoy an easy life) to try tasks without the help of particular resources. Nobody knows the class as well as you do, so you are in a good position to make chose decisions. More importantly, by giving an element of choice to the children, you are conveying important messages about autonomy and independence and about taking the children seriously as learners who have valid opinions and views about their own learning.
    - - Definition pg. 200-1
        
        Dyscalculia affects 'arithmetic skills'. We need to remember that arithmetic is just one small part of the larger subject we call mathematics. People with dyscalculia do not necessarily have any problem with other mathematical topics or with mathematical concepts. It is perfectly possible for someone with dyscalculia to study science subjects to degree level, despite a continuing difficulty with basic arithmetic.
        
        The definition includes both number facts and procedures. An example of number facts might be all the times tables facts up to 10 x 10. An example of procedures might be all the sequential steps needed to work through the standard algorithm for division. The salient point is that both aspects, number facts and mathematical Drocedures can be affec
        
        The final sentence in the definition implies that teachers must aim higher than just teaching children to produce a correct answer or use a correct method'. Most maths educationalists strongly agree that teaching children to find answers mechanically is simply not good enough. A child who just goes through a series of prescribed memorised steps has only learned how to follow a recipe not how to really understand, or undertake, the maths.
    - - The independent review explored the nature of meaningful and high-quality talk during lessons as a process of developing children's chinking so that they were learning with a relational understanding - knowing what to do and why (Skemp, 1972) and empowering children to apply their knowledge flexibly to new situations and contexts
      - •part of your role as a teacher is co provide a structured approach to the learning and teaching of mathematical language and implementation through mathematical discourse. Your teaching should include planned opportunities for the development of mathematical vocabulary.
      - Social interaction and particularly language is central to Vygotsky's theory of intellectual and cognitive development. He proposed that children's initial understanding results from interaction with others and is then internalised (Keenan, 2002)- This can be encouraged through carefully planned opportunities for discussion, allowing children to talk about the work they are engaged in. Your role is to create and manage opportunities ^ for discussion, listening and oral work across whole-class work, group work and with the use of talk partners so that accurate mathematical language can be scaffolded and modelled.
      - Think about how children will be paired and arranged for partner talk. It might be useful to have different pairings for different occasions during lessons.
      - Identify key questions to scaffold. the talk.
      - The use of talk partners can provide opportunities to practise and rehearse language, allow a quick interchange of ideas and allow partially formed ideas to evolve, whereas group discussion may provide opportunities for mathematical ideas to be shared? considered and new ideas to be developed and constructed (Hansen and Ahir, 2014). Vygotsky relates this to a. more knowledgeable other (not necessarily the teacher) who scaffolds and moves learning on (Pricchard} 2005, p-30).
      - the NCETM suggests that mathematical questions have several possible purposes and that the questions you ask will depend, in part at least, on that purpose. You ma/ ask questions as a form of assessment to establish what the children already know, so that you can make appropriate ad j vestments to your lessons. If this is the case, you are perfectly justified in asking a question to which you already know the answer. In
      - Encouraging mathematical discourse and being an active participant in talk can foster mathematical communities in classrooms, where children's explanation of ideas, enables them to gain greater ownership of these ideas so that they are able to transfer co other situations (Lee, 2006)
      - Ofsted identified the importance of developing mathematical language to support thinking as good practice' (Ofsted, 2011 2008' DCSF, 2008). In the independent review of mathematics teaching by Sir Peter Williams, the following point was made on effective pedagogy of primary mathematics. Talking mathematics should not be seen simple as a rehearsal in class of the vocabulary of mathematics, novel and important though that may be for the young learner. It should extend to high-quality discussion that develops children's logic, reasoning and deduction skills, and underpins all mathematical learning activity The ultimate goal is to develop mathematical understanding comprehension of and applications.
      - However, the use of mathematical language in itself can be a challenge. Mathematical language can be likened to the learning of a second language as it involves the acquisition of a new specialised vocabulary to interpret understand and communicate the mathematics, which can make the subject harder to understand (Barmby et al., 2009; Hay lock and Thangata, 2007)
        In the context of your classroom this would mean that children need to acquire appropriate vocabulary so that they are not just talking about maths but they are also talking mathematically to develop thinking (Askew 2011, p. 5; Lee, 2006
    - - Setting clear learning objectives-it is important to distinguish between mathematical concepts, skills and activities. I recently saw a lesson where the learning objective was 'To learn how to find the area of the classroom using newspaper'. This describes what the children were doing but the conceptual earning goes beyond this description. Children learn a lot of other, more generic ills in the course of learning mathematics and reflecting them in learning objectives (for example, to be able to solve complex problems by working systematically), alongside more mathematically specific learning objectives (for to find the area of rectangles), might help children to see the point of some the mathematics they are doing.
      - Success criteria-Clarke (2005) defines success criteria as a reminder of steps ( as in a mathematical procedure) or ingredients which either must be used (as in instructional writing) could help the child achieve the learning objective (p.37) While success criteria work well in subjects such as English it is more difficult to do this in all areas of mathematical learning. There is a danger chat success criteria can simply become a list of procedures chat the children follow rather blindly. It may be helpful to chink of success criteria as features of a good piece of work. They enable the children to compare the features of their own work with those that have been identified as being indicative of'success'. If their own work does not contain some of the identified features, there is clear direction about how to improve.
      - Knowing the children's current level of understanding and planning from that underpins the idea of Ail, or formative assessment. Black and Wiliam, in a paper entitled Inside the Black Box (1998) argued strongly that planning lessons based on a clear understanding of what the children already know and where gaps in their understanding lie can have dramatic effects on the progress they make,
    - - You may choose to rotate your attention over the course of a week or a sequence of lessons to ensure that each child benefits from your intervention. In deciding where c< focus your support for the main part of the lesson, it is important that all the children benefit and particularly that those children who are labelled as 'higher attainers' and who may be able to work more independently are challenged through your direct intervention. It is equally important that children labelled as 'lower attainers' do not become overly dependent on adult support
      - As the teacher, your time with the children is at a premium. You should aim to be interacting with the children for as much of the lesson as possible. This may mean chat you make yourself available to the children during the main part of the lesson and move around the room checking the children's understanding (gathering formative assessment evidence) and offering support. It may mean that you decide to focus your attention on a particular group or groups working with the children in a guided way.
        .
  - - - pg. 37
        Some of our findings were surprising in that they challenge some popularly held beliefs about what makes a teacher effective. For example, style of organisation for mathematics teaching was not a predictor of how effective teachers were. Whole-class 'question-and-answer' teaching styles were used t?y both highly effective and comparatively less effective teachers. Similarly/ individualised work and small-group work were used by teachers across the range of effectiveness.
      - pg. 42-3
        Our highly effective teachers demonstrated a range of classroom organisation styles including whole-class teaching, individual and group On such measures their practices were indistinguishable from of the teachers who were only moderately effective. While the interplay between beliefs and practices is complex, these orientations provide insight into the mathematical and pedagogical purposes behind particular classroom practices and may be more important than the practices themselves Exhortations for teacher;
    - - The test questions we used in our research were crafted as diagnostic questions, the sense that they were written to uncover children's thinking in order to determine the next steps in their learning
      - They are usually trying to enter a world of thinking that is often quite puzzling and alien to their everyday experience. We, as teachers can support them as they express their own ideas, their own explanations and, importantly, their own identity as independent learners if we have a teaching strategy that explicitly values errors and seeks articulation of (mis)conceptions. This approach is usually called diagnostic teaching because it involves a process of 'diagnosis' that is, the revealing of the underlying causes or explanations for errors (in this view errors are only symptoms, and we do not just 'treat' symptoms).
      - A dialogic pedagogy shifts attention from mathematical content to argumentation and consideration of changing one's mind. We do not say that method should be used all the time or that it is the only way to address errors and misconceptions, but we suggest that there is much for teachers to learn from giving voice to children's errors and misconceptions and from providing more time for them to reason in order to establish secure understanding.
      - We make a first guess (inference) about why a child responded in a particular way; but we then have an opportunity to check that inference by either asking the child to justify their response or, we think more productively, by setting up peer discussion and listening to children's reasoning. In such peer discussions children are asked to justify their response in order to persuade another child of their view or to consider changing their own mind. At the heart of our method is the child reorganising or strengthening their understanding through articulation or through what we call argument-in-discussion
    - - Pg. 84-5
        Using problem-solving approaches teachers can embrace issues of differentiation by outcome and simultaneously enable the practice and consolidation of key numerical concepts
      - P.g 92
        We can obviously make up many more such addition-type patterns though it would be of greater value for children to create their own. Indeed, the idea of children creating sequences feeds perfectly into the notion of differentiation by outcome.
      - Pg. 215
        In fact, the strength of the chunking algorithm lies in its great potential for differentiation: it allows for a range of levels of sophistication in children's confidence and understanding, in that the less confident can remove small chunks* the more confident can take away larger chunks- and the most confident can subtract the maximum-sized chunks.
      - Pg. 218
        ^or the vast majority of children it would be more useful to focus partiallarly on algorithms that, unlike compact algorithms, have in-built variability that allows for the important principle of differentiation.
      - Pg. 236
        More often, however, differentiation for the gifted is achieved by giving them different activities to do that are felt to be more suited to their needs.
        This is partly an organisational issue is it better to identify a group of children and give them extra provision in withdrawal groups where the identified children are taken out of their classes, or is it better to deal with them in the whole class context, through 'differentiation'? It is easier in some ways to deal with a small group of children taken out of their class, and this may boost their self-esteem, but if they feel singled out and isolated from their friends, then otherwise excellent activities will not lead to the hoped-for benefits.
        The alternative differentiation in the whole-class context can sometimes be achieved by giving the same mathematics starting point to everyone, and, through differentiated responses to it, meet the needs of all (see Ollerton, Chapter 6). Piggott (2004: 9) claims that many of the resources on the NRlcH website (www.nrich.maths.org), which is one of the most extensive sources of activities for gifted mathematics students, can be used in this way, as they have 'something to offer pupils of nearly all abilities'. She calls them 'low threshold-high ceiling' tasks.
    - - Pg. 31-45
        We defined effective teaching of numeracy as teaching that helps children: acquire knowledge of and facility with numbers number relations and number operations based on an integrated network of understanding, techniques strategies and application skills; learn how to apply this knowledge of and facility with number number relations and number operations in a variety of contexts.
        Teaching is believed to be most effective when it consists of clear verbal explanations of routines. Interactions between teachers and children tend to be question and answer exchanges in order to check whether or not children can reproduce the routine or method being introduced to them. What children already know is of less importance, unless it forms part of procedure
      - Pg. 73-4
        What seemed to distinguish some of the effective teachers from others was what the project team described as a propensity to make connections such as: connections between different aspects of mathematics, for example, Addition and subtraction or fractions, decimals and percentages; connections between different representations of mathematics, moving between symbols, words, diagrams and objects (see Barmby, Harries and Higgins, Chapter 3); connections with children's methods-valuing these and being interested in children's thinking but also sharing their methods.
    - - Pg. 58-71
        
        participating in effective group work, not only in terms of insights gained from the contributions of others but also through having an opportunity themselves. The second is the crucial role of teachers in enabling successful collaborative talk and using the insights gained from it in assessing their students' progress and planning for future learning.
        
        work of Vygotsky (1986) • who argued that children learn through their interactions with (more capable) peers and adults.
        proposed that engagement in intermental activity (social interaction) fosters the development of intramental (individual) cognitive abilities
    - - Pg. 19
        What seemed to differentiate effective teachers (here measuring effectiveness by the gains made across the year in average class performance) was not their pedagogic strategies but their well-developed personal philosophies of mathematics teaching and teaching methods.
      - Pg. 226
        In order to meet the unique needs of each child the individualised teaching programme can only be designed after a detailed assessment of each child's mathematics; earning. Diagnostic assessment to inform teaching is a critical ingredient current knowledge and strategies is an essential first step in the development current knowledge and strategies is an essential first step in the development of a successful early mathematics intervention programme.
    - - Pg. 65
        Teachers provide key role in modelling appropriate language and behaviour to the student.
      - Pg. 115
        The key messages for the adults' role emphasise modelling the use of language and the importance of repetition and allowing time for learning.
      - Pg. 151-2
        
        The representations and contexts we use in classrooms to model the mathematics such as fractions of cakes number lines hundred squares context of money for decimals-ideally bring meaning by providing connections with what is already known intuitively by the learner and the mathematics under consideration. But such representations have their limitations: oaf model or context will not represent all of the mathematics and the learner will need to experience several models and be able to move flexibly between them to successfully build the mathematics (see Delaney, Chapter 5, and Barmby, Harries and Higgins, Chapter 3).
        
        We use the word to refer to the way mathematics is connected with a 'real' everyday world - the everyday world being then represented t?y mathematics. 'One can say perhaps when a child has a "modelling error" the child has their own "model" of the situation in conflict with the "mathematical model" expected in the academic context of school' (Ryan and Williams 2007:16).
    - - Pg. 72
        During the 1950s and 1960s, educationalists were gradually becoming aware of the work of educational psychologists such as Piaget and Bruner. Piaget's work was interpreted as being about 'learning doing', and Bruner's as being concerned with three distinct modes of representing the world: enactive (actions), iconic (pictures) and symbolic (words and numbers).
    - - Pg. 72-83
        'For most children practical work provides the most effective means by which understanding of mathematics can develop.' Askew and Wiliam (1995:10), in a review of research findings concluded that 'practical work can provide images that help pupils contextualise mathematical ideas'.
      - Pg. 229-30
        Coltman et al. (2002) used the notion of scaffolding and working within the child's 'zone of proximal development' in a study that showed how structured adult intervention increased the effectiveness of learning and the development of secure and transferable concepts. Even though they acknowledged the importance of free play they stated that children alone cannot discover all the important knowledge through manipulation of resources; they learned more effectively through carefully structured joint activity with experienced others.
        Learning without making connections can be referred to as rote learning or learning without understanding. Children need to build materials and pictures (Haylock and Cockburn 2008) in order to understand a mathematical concept (seeDelaney Chapters).
      - Pg. 236
        Piggott (2004: 9) claims that many of the resources on the NRICH website (www.nrich.maths.org), which is one of the most extensive sources of activities for gifted mathematics students, can be used in this way, as thef have 'something to offer pupils of nearly all abilities'. She calls them 'low threshold-high ceiling' tasks.
    - - Pg. 58-71
        The students work in groups of three ideally not friendship based and prefer ably of mixed gender as this has been found to help avoid unhelpful stalemate unconsidered consent.
      - Pg. 82
        It is the complementary nature of the demonstration and interaction approaches set out above which in my view, offers the most powerful way forward in optimising the use of resources.
        The important focus of good (mathematics) teaching is to keep the interaction between teacher and learners high. A resource which facilitates demonstration and interaction mediates discussion in powerful ways, it offers the possibility for teachers to support their talk with appropriate actions and, in turn, to watch and listen to pupils interacting with the same resource, revealing their inherent understanding of important concepts as well potential misconceptions.
        It is the individual and changing nature of this interchange that keeps a teacher fresh and the potential for learning high. If one has the view of a teacher as essentially a researcher, then, within this approach, teachers are constantly assessing understanding and supporting a grounded development of mathematical concepts.
      - Pg. 106
        The importance of high-quality discussion is identified by Williams (DCSF 2008: 65) when he states that it 'develops children's logic, reasoning and deduction skills and underpins all mathematical learning activity' and research suggests that this is possible to develop this with young children.
      - Pg. 136-8
        
        Much classroom discourse consists of what Bloom (1956) terms low-level questions for which the teacher knows the answer (for example, asking children to recall facts and procedures: what is 8 times 6?). Generally- increasing the proportion of higher-level questions is associated with increases in children's understanding (Burton et al. 1986). Higher-order questions require children to think (for example, 'How would you work out 8 times 6 if you didn't know it?')- Such questioning is often focused less on what children already know (although this may be important) and more on what they need to do in order to learn more. But the situation is not straightforward. Whether a question is actually challenging depends on what the children already know. So, a high-level question for one class may be a low-level question for another. come up with 'good' questions a teacher needs to know the children. But higher level questions are also 'harder'. Children need to think and thinking takes time.
        
        But, while wait time is very powerful increased wait time is not an effective strategy for lower-order more straightforward questions (for example, recall of number facts). Somewhat paradoxically increasing wait time than about 5 seconds can actually decrease the quality of classroom talk (Tobin 1986). In fact if children cannot respond within 3 seconds, this may indicate that they need time to talk or work on the problem in pairs or small groups.
        
        Talking is central to teaching mathematics formatively. But talking is not in itself enough. Talking allows children to express what they know. But they then need feedback on what to do next. Providing feedback in mathematics can be tricky. Part of the power of mathematics is that ideas can be expressed very concisely. Yet this strength can make mathematics difficult to teach and learn. Through exploring and 'unpacking' mathematics children can begin to see for themselves what they know and how well they know it. By listening to and interacting with pupils, a teacher can provide feedback that suggests ways in which pupils can improve their learning.
        If we want to find out what children understand in mathematics rather just what they can recite then we need to challenge children with activities that encourage them to think and talk about their ideas. This may involve presenting children with the unexpected: an 'obvious' answer that is in some inadequate, a problem that does not have just one correct answer or a teacher defending the 'wrong' answer.
      - Pg. 230
        Coltman et al. (2002) used the notion of scaffolding and working within the child's 'zone of proximal development' in a study that showed how structured adult intervention increased the effectiveness of learning and the development of secure and transferable concepts.
      - Pg. 233
        
        teacher working with a class of up to 30 children will clearly not be able to spend lengthy periods of time working one to one assessing all the children in depth, and this level of assessment is probably unnecessary for the majority of children. What teachers can do however, is encourage children to talk to them about mathematics, and to them, not in order to identify 'wrong' answers and put them right, but to enter more fully into the children's minds so that they can build on A second issue for teachers is to consider
        
        A second issue for teachers is to consider the extent to which children are perceived as successful at mathematics may be learning procedures without developing matching mathematical understanding. This can lead to children experiencing difficulties in mathematics later as each procedure has to be memorised individually because they cannot make conceptual links what they have learned already.