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Integration & cultural diversity HC slides (HC3: integration II:…
Integration & cultural diversity HC slides
HC1: International migration - acculturation and cultural diversity
underlying topic
the migration cycle: people moving, arriving, settling (domains or integration), acculturating, struggling, dealing with resistance, contributing
learning goal check
explain most important theories on migration, cultural diversity, acculturation and integrationprocess
formulate explanations for migration flows and patterns, accult strategies, outcomes integr processes, impact on cult diversity, schools and organisations
knowledge on diff ways in which western countries deal with issues related to cultural diversity and integration
cultural questions
what kind of policies can facilitate integration
what does it mean to be integrated?
what is the economic position of minorities?
how can the eco position be improved and discrimination be limited?
what are the causes of fundamentalism and intolerance?
Mythbusters!
myth 1: i will return to homecountry, but mostly they become permanent residents
myth 2: origin of migration is individual -
wrong
: to understand migration > move away from exclusively individualistic motivations
have to disconnect public opinions and idealogies of migration from economic and social realities that drive migratory processes
theories of internation migration
economic theories of migration
push/pull theories (Ravenstein)
neo-classical economics
individualistics & ahistorical, human capital. RAT, dual labor market, overly simplistic, no role of state)
historical-structural approach
-
world system theory (marxist theory roots)
flaws: too much for capital, too little for agency
migration systems theory and the trend to a new interdisciplinary approach
prior links between sending & receiving countries
based on colonialisation, politics, trade, investments or cultural ties
interaction macro/micro structures
family (not individuals & community are crucial in migration, no single cause)
Transnational theory
modern technologies, transport and communication make it easier to remain close links with area of origins
circulatory and repeated migration
agency based
challenges
immobility paradox - many do not move!
class and inequality as a factor leading to access of migration
existential and emotional aspects of migration
biographies of migrants, life-course stories
gender and migration
structure & agency factors (structuration model)
how do ethnic minorities become integrated
classical:
race relations cycle
assimilation (integration) = a process of interpenetration and fusion in which persons/groups acquire memories, sentiments and attitudes of other persons and groups, by sharing their experience and history, are incorporated in a common cultural life
Gordon: 7 stages of assimilation
acculturation
structural assimilation
marital assimilation
identification assimilation
attitude reception assimilation
behavior reception assimilation (- discrimination)
civic assimilation (absence value/power struggles)
classical assimilation theory = immigrant minorities will dissolve into the mainstream over the course of time/generations
but:
increasing diversity
changing ecnonomy
different outcomes observed
changing nature (crisis) of national ID
Integration: segmented assimilation
classical assimilation (straight-line)
upward mobility / all-encompassing assimilation
downward assimilation (ethnic disadvantage): downward mobility
segmented assimilation
upward mobility without cultural assimilation
what is integration? 3 ideas
immigrant integration = process economic mobility and social inclusion
other: process in which migrants accepted into society as individual and as group
process wherein immigrants and communities mutually adapt to one another
Melting Pot (assimilation), Tex-mex Turkey Burger (creolization), Salad Bowl (pluralism)
levels of integration
micro: integration outcomes for migrants
meso: succesful communities
macro: national identity
acculturation 3 ideas
= process by which ppl learn the requirements of their surroundings culture and acquire values an behaviors necessary in that culture
= process of cult & psych change that results following meeting between cultures
from perspective migrants/minorities or perspective of society as a whole? Used INTERCHANGEABLY
dimensional (oudenhoven)
unidimensional - immigrants lose/reject ID with origin culture and adopt/accept ID host culture
multidimensional: acculturation in different domains, orientation towards origin and destinations cultures largely independant
Berry's acculturation model
look in notebook: assimi, integr, margina, separation
acculturation strategies: should immigr assimilate or integrate?
oz: shows that minor cultural ID is important for group members, wellbeing, school (integration is preferred by immigrants)
majority prefer that they assimilate
incongruence > source of negative intergroup attitudes
HC2:
outline
ethnic inequality in school achievement and educational attainment
drivers (individuals, community and country)
levels of analysis: individual, community/school, country
differences across origin groups an destination countries in aspirations, grades, dropout or level
ethnic inequality in labour market outcomes
drivers
levels of analysis: individual, organization/labour market segment, country
differences across origin groups and destination countries
focus on discrimination
why it matters?
1th generation migrants (foreign-born)
attended or completed education in country of origin
recognition of certificates can be problematic
some invested in human capital after arrival in the country of destination
2d generation migrants
more relevant group for evaluating integration processes
comparable education systems, grades and degrees
fluency in host country language much less of an issue
how study the effect of ethnicity on education outcomes - micro explanations
primary effects
performance
effects of ethnicity on school performance
mechanisms: SES, limited language skills, cultural resources, lack of networks
secondary effects
choice
effects of ethnicity on choices (which track to choose), for ppl with similar school performance
mechanisms: opportunity costs of studying, perceived value of education, limited information about the education system, anticipation of discrimination
tertiary effects???? (bias): assignment of unequal marks of differential treatment (advice) by teachers
weak performances, but bold choices!
average children of immigrants perform less well than children major groups
average children of immigrants more likely to choose for academic track (vs vocational ones) than children major group (even with same grades)
ethnic disadvantage in education mainly due primary effects
- early achievement gap, secondary effects of immigrant families are mostly positive!
country of origin matters.. for better..
sometimes immigrant kids outperform nonimmi -->net ethnic premia = for chines groups after controlling for variables
but most of times perform less well than children of non-immigrants (mostly because of SES)
Net ethnic penalties: for turkish and north african groups remain
and country of destination matters too..
some contexts of reception are more favourable to the integration of migrants and their descendants
primary effects less affected by institutional context than secondary ones
comprehensive vs. tracked education systems
postponing selection gives more time to children to realize their potential
macro-level explanations
differences between countries partly reflect selectivity of migration
good countries: skill-based systems to regulate immigration (aus, canada, NZ)
countries hosting guest workers and their descendants (NL, FR, BE, AU)
Countries with refugees and humanitarian (DK, SE)
countries with high skilled immigrants (UK, IE)
macro level expl
trying to disentangle how important
origin, community and destination factors
are in explaining netlevels ethnic educational inequality
what can policies do?
system-level policies
postponing selection into tracks/ability grouping
managing school choice to avoid segregation
allocating resources for migrant education
financial incentives for teachers
school-level policies
language learning/remedial classes
intercultural education
stimulating parental involvement in migrant families
recap- ethnic equality in education
there are primary and secondary effects of social origin on education outcomes
some perform better some perform worse
highest share of ethnic inequality in education can be explained by social origin (parental ses background) but even after controlling for it some differences remain unexplained (ethnic penalties or premia)
children of immigrants are better off in comprehensive education systems that postpone moment of track selection/assignment
ethnic equality in labour market
general pattern of disadvantage
some groups more affected than others
some gaps larger/smaller in countries of destination
how can we explain this disadvantage? micro-level explanations
supply-side explanation
human capital
investments in education
skills
work experience
often tied to specific contexts > hard to transfer
when a country is really focussed on vocational jobs, hard to find jobs (eg. in germany)
social capital
mechanism: information/influence. ppl with more social capital are in a better position
size (contacts) 2. resources/information 3. willingness to provide sources/share info/ pull strings
bonding or bridging social capital? better to bridge, more eco outcomes and help ppl find jobs
Bonding social capital: within the ethnic community access to niches (that leads to an improvement in status)
Bridging social capital: with ethnic others (majority group) access to non-redundant information (information that you would not have if you haven’t been in contact with this group).
Bonding ties small on economic outcomes, bridging ties help finding employment and better positions
work ethic and cultural differences (values/ideology)
even after controlling for variables explained by demographic and human capital differences, still a problem that immigrants fare worse than natives.
ethnic penalty = these gaps are so called penalties (nonexplained gaps)
assumption that it can be explained by discrimination
maybe need to check the 1. host-country language proficiency, 2. contacts with natives and 3. values/attitudes since in research is found that unemployment differences were none to small in distuignishness.
what can policies do?
to reduce discrimination
anti-discrimination legislation
diversity training
anonymious application proceduren
training programmes
provision of job search assistance
how to measure discrimination
self-report from members of ethnic minority groups
surveys employers
reported episodes victims
decomposition method
focus on unexplained variance, after controlling for education, work experience, social contacts, age, SES
field experiments
RECAP
ethnic minorities tend to perform worse in labor market than ethnic majority: gaps in labour market outcomes reduce the longer the time spent in host country
there are 4 explanations for ethnic differences: human capital, social capital, discrimination and ideology/culture
highest share of ethnic inequality can be explained by human capital and social capital; discrimination exist in labor market, correlated with ethnic differences in labor market outcomes, but some groups manage to avoid discrimination (maybe due to resourceful ethnic communities, or accept job from lower level)
demand-side explanations
employers' discrimination
= valuation in the market place of personal characteristics of the worker that are
unrelated
to worker productivity
unethical, unlawful, inefficient/irrational
taste-based discrimination
= discrimination in labor market as personal prejudice or taste against associating with a particular group
Employers are willing to pay a price for discriminating (hire a less productive person instead of a minority member). Information about the individual doesn’t matter.
statistical discrimination
= employer lacks perfect information about candidates productivity, they rely on aggegrate group characteristics (such as group averages). Based on inaccurate beliefs
lack the neccessary info and as a result make discriminatory decision
HC3: integration II: cultural, social and political integration
OUTLINE
cultural integration
role religion in accult process
bridge or barrier to integration? US vs Western europe
relation between cultural integration and socio-economic integration
focus on muslims disadvantage: islamophobia and anti-muslim discrimination
social integration
drivers preferennces, third parties and oppurtunity structure
outcomes + socio-economic and value change
outcome - conflict with parents and with partners
political integration
integration trade-offs
3 levels of analysis: micro meso macro
what is cultural integration
to what extent do migrants carry their culture with them or acquire the culture of their new setting?
Norris:
decreasing difference in means
between immigrants and nonimmigrant populations w/ respect to support for given norms/values
most change is
intergenerational
: primary socialization + adaptation
why important?
symbolic threat: fear that immigrants pose a threat to the traditional way of life of society (cult diff often trigger a interethnic conflict)
negative attitudes towards immigrants more driven by factors related to national ID than to economic (dis)advantage
cultural racism
- culture and religion are essentialized, so that ways of life are seen as unchangeable
how religion related to integration? 5 mechanisms
group identity marker
facilitates formation of a
sense of belongingness
that provides emotional/social support, especially during formative years
see reactive religiosity OR
rejection/identification model
religious content
influences
attitudes towards work and education
as well as the formation of
cultural values and orientations
- religions vary with regard to how strongly values are endorsed and non-conformance is sanctioned (third parties influence)
resources acquired through religious participation
provision of
services, information and support
role of ethnic communities as a psychological buffer and source of human/social capital
signals associated with religious membership
activates stereotypes
, particularly with regard to conservatism, motivation, orientation towards the origin country, lack of assimilation/integration
triggers of discrimination from majority group
religion as
bright symbolic boundary
that may trigger
unconscious discrimination
what can explain the better position of muslims in US?
demographics (less muslims in USA and better educated)
same share of respondents identifying as christians, but US characterized by
higher levels of religiosity
- non practicing christians highest in europe
structural integration - muslim lower SES en SES disadvantage, in the US, muslims tend to be well-educated and middleclass
SIDE NOTES
1
larger gaps in countries w/ larger inflows of refugees or guest workers
smaller gaps or even no gaps/advantage in countries with immigrant policies favorable to highly educated migrants
2
other religious minorities are more highly educated
religious minorities in europe cannot, in and of itself, explain muslims advantage
3
christian/muslim education gap is in sub-saharan africa one of the largest intraregional gaps
christians promoted schools
both promote it (also muslim) but low level of attainment of parents limits the learning oppurtunities for their children
for muslims state-sponsored schools seen as christian-oriented and
lacking legitimacy
due to their historical link
adding nuances to the arguments
1
VS ppl are more negative toward blacks, especially muslims-blacks
2
structural disadvantage of muslims mostly for 1th generations
mostly of EU and VS are accepting towards muslims
opinions more divided in
role of islam in society
self-reported discrimination in EU countries
social inclusion: more perceived discrimination, lower levels of institutional trust and attachment to their country of residence
higher incidence of self-reported discrimination for ppl wearing traditional or religious clothing
double disadvantage when religious and showing that you are religious
RECAP - cult integration
religion may function as a bridge (provider of services, information, support) or barrier (trigger of stereotypes) to integration
religion (islam) is a bridge in the US and a barrier in western europe due to the different demographic and SES composition of muslim population and higher level of religiosity of ppl general in US
in both contexts - muslims face discrimination in many spheres of life, including jobs, housing and health (especially when clothed traditionally)
necessary distinguish between attitudes toward muslims and attitudes towards muslims practices
social integration <-> structural integration
crossectional
bridging ties: contacts with major groups improve labour market outcomes
after controlling for contacts with the majority group, gaps in labour and market participation strongly reduced
longitudinal evidence shows
bidirectional
relationship
more interethnic contacts at T1 leader to better labour market position at T2, net of a human capital accumulation
higher education and better labour market position at T1 lead to more interethnic contacts at T2
intermarriage: why bother?
core measure of social integration
intermarriage fundamentally shapes characteristics future generations (biological and parental socialization)
mixed families on the rise
--> group boundaries are weakened and maintained
how explain interethnic tie formation? (marriage market: think of set of potential spouses)
preferences -> economical attractiveness and cultural similarity, shared lifestyles and mutual understanding
predict homogamy
matching hypo: prefer similarity
competition hypo: both sides prefer partners with more of a characteristics
by-product hypothesis: selection on a different trait (faith) results in homogamy
predict intermarriage
exchange theory - ppl balance unequal traits through exchange (high income man but low status marries high-status woman with low income)
third parties -> group ID and sense of belonging/group sactioning of undesirable behavior, the church or the state
oppurtunity structure -> residential segregation, composition of local marriage markets, group size
intermarriage: micro-level explanations
education
- lower attachment to family/origin; more universalistic views
time
spent in host country and
age at arrival
:
2nd generation more intermarriage and intermarriage increases over time
intermarriage: role of third parties
third parties = ethnic communities, families churches, the state
can encourage intra-ethnic ties and discourage or sanction cross-ethnic to maintain internal cohesion and homogenity of the community
group identificatio and group solidarity
(spouse selection: kin networks, arranged marriages)
hard to test this, is mainly indirectly
intermarriage: role of oppurtunity structure
prerequisite for contact to occur are meeting oppurtunities:
local marriage markets
group size and sex ratio of the group
group heterogenity in SES
segregation of local marriage markets such as neighborhoods, schools, workplaces
language and cultural orientation also limit or increase the chance of interethnic contact
dutch context
religion stronger barrier than race in NL
link between cult en social integration
clash in NL is not so much about religion but about
cultural values and orientations
, especially with sexuality (abortion, divorse, homo)
social integration -> cultural integration
kalmijn: problems for 2nd generation: pressures
pull (familt factors) keep migrants tied to relatively conservative ethnic/religious communities (direct: parental control and primary socialization like modelling and instruction)
push (individual) factors thay facilitate cultural assimilation and adoption of generally more liberal orientations
family and individual forces operate independantly
parental religious orthodoxy may block value change
contacts with majority neighbors and having majority friends foster adoption of more liberal values
RECAP - social integration
preferences, third parties' influence and oppurtunity structure all matter for social integration; this framework can be used to explain emergence of strong (intermarriages) as well as weak (acquaintances) ties
willingness to integrate socially is generally high, diff values and norms regarding sexuality, divorce, abortion are a stronger barrier to integration
social integration can influence value change (cult integration) and possibly cause conflict with family origin -> integration comes at cost
wg2
summary argument Foner why diff in muslims in US and EU
demographics
composition of muslim population
different role of religion in society: US think that they are supposed to be religious (bridge) while EU think they should be irreligious (barrier)
still valid ideas? what about eastern europe?
state regulation of religion
nationalism
lack of contact
negative portrayal media
higher exposure refugee flaws
economic threats
why look at online dating preferences?
observe of mate selection process (only the outcome)
allow us to examine both iniating and reciprocating behavior
more common event: internet replaces neighborhood, family and workplace as major venue to meet romantic partners
racial homophily
dominates daters sending-behavior
women generally more only co-ethnics or to white man; men more crossing boundaries but not with black women
disadvantage suffered by asian men, black men and black women not entirely driven by white preferences: but by sending behavior of nonwhites as well
black women greater homophily tendency than asian women. black men strongest homophily tendency among male daters
raciel hierarchy
overshadows the responding process
daters tend to respond to those of dominant or same racial status while rejecting racially marginallized groups
white men en white women likely to be reciprocated, white women only respond to white men
black daters tend to be ignored when they contact nonblack groups, even though they do not discriminate against outgroups
summary
educational homophily - white women more likely to respond in overall to white men (also with out degree)
college educated minority still treated as minority without degree (racial homophily)
educational homo matters far less than racial homogamy
HC4: Multiculturalism and integration policies at the macro leven
todays objectives
identify multicultural and other types of integration policies
understand the development of integration policies over the last decades: a retreat from multiculturalism?
link integration policies to integration outcomes and majority attitudes
reflect upon the dutch case: culturalization of citizenship
meaning multiculturalism..
as demographic diversity
refers to ...
indegenous people (you took their country)
sub-state national groups (belgium)
immigrant groups (racial, ethnic, religious)
as a political philosophy
Berry (2001)
is endorsement of the ingration strategy of min groups, it requires that the majority also values cultural pluralism
intercultural strategies (2001)
argues that to enhance justice and social equality -> governments and majority citizens must recognize cultural minorities, valorize them and accomodate their needs
have 2 key elements:
recognition and valorization of cultural pluralism
empowerment of ethno-cultural groups (redressing inequalities, meet group-specific needs)
alternative: thereby contrasts classical liberalism, which focuses on identical treatment (rights, liberties, duties) of all
individual
citizens by the state > argues that equal treatment has unequal consequences for majority/minority groups, due to historically and socially rooted ethnic hierarchies and power relations
as actual public policy
consists of policies that recognize and accomodate pluralism
can be measured as the extent to which countries have policies in place that give recognition and support to min groups to express their distinct identities and practices
critique on multiculturalism
demographic diversity > (illegal) immigration burdens economic welfare and social trust between citizens
political/ set of policies > multiculturalism fails to address economic and power inequalities
overall > tends to focus on the 3S model of multiculturalism, which caricaturizes multiculturalism as the celebration of superficial uncontroversial cultural markers
Kymlicka: solidifies group differences and blocks cultural change; promote separation of cultural groups
also thinks that multicultiralism is a process of citizenisation > so it attempts to redefine the rela between ethno-cultural minorities and the state through adoption of new laws, policies or institutions
empowerment integral part of multiculturalism, in addition to valorization pluralism
the majority community has to accept some of its privileges are not deserved so they have to hand those privileges in
reinforces power relations and illiberal practices within min groups (is incompatible with fundamental liberal democratic values such as freedom and equality
the challenge of muslim immigrants to multiculti...
multiculturalism fosters disloyalty to the national community in favor of illiberal enemies (ISIS)
multiculti requires recognition of illiberal cultures and practices
this muslim thing suggests that
securization of interethnic rela and a lack of protection of individual human rights will hinder the development of multiculturalist policies
together with the concerns about illegal immigration and the economic burden placed on society by immigrants
this does explain the
backlash
against mutliculturalism
multiculturalism bad for women?
Susan Okin
multiculturalims and feminism are at tension and even in opposition with each other
differences of power within cultures are gendered
human and minority right defenders sometimes overlook this and fail to notice this
alternative policies
civic integration (inburgerin) as an alternatibe public policy - focuses on integration of individual minorities in societies' economic and political mainstream
economic integration more important than symbolic recognition
common language & national identity important
civic test for newcomers
individual responsibility instead of group-based rights
liberal civic integration policies > individual integration/mobility
anti-discrimination policies (see MIPEX!)
policies focusing on economic, health, political outcomes
policies determining legal access to citizenship
coercive integration policies > adaptation to the host country
courses/tests on national language, culture, history, institutions, as entry requirements or along the path to citizenship
you can seen a retreat from multiculturalism
how can it be that multiculturalism policies have increased over the last decades, while the 'master narrative' of a retreat from mutliculturalism suggests the opposite?
actually more increase than decrease
we do see a stronger trend from less to more civic integration policies
and from less to more harsher civic integration policies
alternative philosophies
multiculti
is increasingly replaced by a discourse of interculturalism or postculturalism
emphasize on:
recognition and equal dignity of all groups
need for dialogue rather than separation
notion that majority groups can make stronger claims than minority groups, because the desire of the host culture to maintain itself is seen as legitimatr
is multiculti effective?
not been shown to redress inequalities
swot analyse - strenghts, weaknesses, oppurtunities and threats
SWOT ANALYSIS multiculturalism
see picture on phone
(s) multiculturalism fosters national ID
in countries where multiculturalism has come in part to define national identity, plays role of a unifying identity,' we are all different'
multiculti threatens national ID
in countries where multiculturalism does not define national ID, multiculti is seen as an inclusive ideology for immigrants/minorities > but as an exclusive ideology by majority members 'what about me? effect'
(w) multiculti creates faultlines
as a set of policies entails allocation of group rights and recognition of group claims
can have the consequence of reifying claims of separateness and distinctiveness
(o) multiculturalism attracts talent and creates competitive advantage
highly skilled immigrants do not have to assimilate
may be more attracted by a tolerant social climate
unique skills might stimulate innovation
transnational ties facilitates international trade
(t) multiculti (diversity) burdens state welfare
it has been suggested that multiculti hinders integration > increases welfare dependancy
link is difficult to evaluate, bc states as canada had selective immigration policies
summary
mutliculturalism = and ideology + set of policies focused on valorization of cultural diversity and empowerment of minority groups
positive consequences of intergroup tolerance/rspect as a social norm is likely, though faultlines are inherent
positive consequences of integration outcomes/empowerment is unclear
positive consequences of economic benefits is unclear, though potential suggested
wg3 multiculturalism and integration policies at the macro level
reading questions Schinkel
a; Schinkel refers in the article to a
society as a discursive construct
- what does he mean by that?
b; explain the title of the article - how is this linked with the distinction between
formal and moral citizenship
“Citizenship becomes a way of defining ‘society’ over against a realm discursively constructed as ‘outside society’, consisting of non-active or inactive citizens and non-citizens lacking proper integration” p-266
example: primary goal of integration policy is.. the realization of the activating citizenship of persons from ethnic minority groups
integration as citizenship
culturalist phase of dutch integration policy: cultural integration takes precedence over the socio-economic integration
culture-centred
culturalism problematizes 'cultures' as such for their lack of adjustment to 'the dominant dutch culture.. practices exemplifying the 'active citizen' are practices normalized according to 'the dominant culture' p.269
loyalty-centred
'' the good citizen has loyalty towards society.. citizenship becomes a matter of inclusion in society and it becomes a thoroughly cultural matter''
formal vs moral citizenship
formal - refers to a jurical status and to social rights (factual, descriptive)
moral citizenship - refers to an extra legal normative concept of good citizens (prescriptive)
'' being a citizen is a right, but next to the juridical concept, citizenship is also an attitude towards life''
citizenship as individual responsibility
moralization of citizenship
the real citizen is an active citizen: active zitizen is an individuals own responsibility, but the '' bridging effort is placed solely on those citizens whose citizenship is in need of improvement
viritualization of citizenship
citizen becomes a virtuality (an unrealised potential) '' the citizenship of those who are citizens in the formal sense but are constured as insufficiently integrated is reduced from an actuality to a virtuality'
difference between inclusion in the nation-state and inclusion in society
earned citizenship
reversal of integration trajectory
now ppl have to prove them moral before informal, she/he earns permanent residence and nationality by proving his acceptance of fundamental norms of dutch society
is an new form of control, surveillance and minotoring borders of society
integration as cultural assimilation
subtext of integration = a culturalist discourse on integration as cultural assimilation
dispensation of ethnicity (allochtones are problematic, and whites already have a free pass)
dispensation of integration =
means that white citizens are not researched and described in terms of their integration
research focuses on problematic groups
measurements of immigrant integration
what ppl are supposed to be integrated in is never questioned, and is
assumed to be constant
, and to be entirely unaltered by the presence of those needing to be 'integrated' in it
integrating in a country that does not exist
we let newcomers integrate into a country that does not exist
HC5 Segregation in neighbourhoods, schools and organizations
migration % is very different on the & of migrants in the total population depending on the geographical level under consideration
neighbourhoods as contexts in which ppl interact, important for social cohesion as well as political representation: integration takes place at the local level!
different groups may cluster in specific areas
zooming in on the meso-level
the socio-spatial context in which individuals and their families live
and the social networks in which they are embedded can alter (enable or constrain) the preferences of individuals and the opportunity structure that they are exposed to
-> local opportunity structure/place stratification
how to measure the ethnic composition of a geographical area?
ethnic diversity
fracnitalization index (Hirschman): chance that two randomly picked individuals living in the same geographical area have a different background
relative group size
% of migrants or minority group members
segregation
index of dissimilarity: proportion of a group that would need to move in order to create a uniform distribution of population
--> also important to consider which groups to consider and how to classify them (see take home assignment 2)!
rela between ethnic diversity and social cohesion (3 possi)
contact hypothesis: more diversity > more contact > less out-group distrust and more out-group empathy (Allport)
conflict hypo: more diversity > more perceived competitiion (realistic or symbolic) > more ethnic threat > more out-group distrust and in-group identification (Stephanx2)
constrict hypo: more diversity > more anomie > more out-group distrust, less solidarity, less in-group trust (Putnam: hunkering down)
rela between ethnic diversity and social cohesion (1)
inconsistent with contact theory: trust in racial outgroups is higher in more homogeneous communities
(2)
fig4. inconsistent with contact theory: in more diverse communities, trust lower
fig5. inconsistent with conflict theory: in more diverse communities, trust in ones ingroup is also lower
(3)
consistent with constrict theory:
diversity seems to trigger anomie/social isolation, pull in like a turtle
not only in these other ethnicities, trust toward everything is very very low
evidence from survey and field experiments (letter exp)
if other culture is made salient, less trust
diversity leads to more distant and negative outgroup contact experiences, which are negatively associated with trust in neighbours
letter exp: ethnic diversity effect on cooperation in low segregation context
summary of empirical evidence
in recent meta-analysis of 87 studies: negative relationship between ethnic diversity and social trust, across various types of trust (except trust toward outgroups)
rather
modest
in size
especially when diversity is measured
locally
: more consequential if out-groups are more visible, and if contact leads to mere exposure rather than meaningful contact
american exceptionalism: stronger evidence for anomie when ethnic heterogeneity goes hand in hand with segregation and inequality
study of neighboorhood segregation
drivers of
residential inequality
-->
spatial sorting
of different SES and migrant groups across meaningful residential sites, such as cities, suburbs, neighboorhood and housing units
neighboorhood effects
literature --> effects of socia-spatial patterns on individual outcomes (poverty concentration, lack of access to resources, exposure to problems)
bi-directional rela
SES, race, preferences leads to
selection effects
> this leads to sorting into neighboorhoods with other spatial units >
neighboorhood effects
--> SES outcomes, behavioral/psych outcomes.....
selection effect > selection bias
do poor neighbourhoods make their residents poorer? (threshold points, scale, reflection problem: neighbourhood affects and is being affected by characteristics of inhabitants)
vicious circle: concentration of disadvantage > erosion of public facili and services > residential abandonment and crime > moving out of the better-off > moving in of the worse-off > concentration of disadvantage
