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2019.11 目標設定理論Goal-Setting theory (9 (限制 (1 (目標衝突Goal Conflict), 2…
2019.11 目標設定理論Goal-Setting theory
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背景
研究方向
該理論的核心發現，目標運作的機制，目標效應的調節者，目標與滿意度的關係以及目標作為激勵媒介的作用 the core findings of the theory, the mechanisms by which goals operate, moderators of goal effects, the relation of goals and satisfaction, and the role of goals as mediators of incentives.
專注於有意識的績效目標與任務績效水平之間的關係，而不是採取特定行動（例如申請研究生院，進行體檢）的離散意圖。 focused on the relationship between conscious performance goals and level of task performance rather than on discrete intentions to take specific actions
發展
行為主義者
外在動機
“動機”以強化和懲罰的形式存在於人的外部 “motivation” was argued by them to lie outside the person
非行為主義者
內在動機
動機被認為是潛意識的 (例如對成就的需求) such as need for achievement, but these were asserted to be subconscious
這排除了研究行為的自覺調節的可能性 This ruled out the possibility of studying the conscious regulation of action.
Ryan
一級解釋性概念
first-level explanatory concepts
人類的行為受到有意識的目的，計劃，意圖，任務等的影響 human behavior is affected by conscious purposes, plans, intentions, tasks and the like
目標設定理論
有意識的目標會影響行動 conscious goals affect action
目標是行動的目的或目標 A goal is the object or aim of an action
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Core Findings
問題一
目標難度與績效之間的關係 the relationship of goal difficulty to performance.
當任務適度困難時，最高的工作量發生，而當任務非常容易或非常困難時，最低的工作量發生 The highest level of effort occurred when the task was moderately difficult, and the lowest levels occurred when the task was either very easy or very hard.
沒有衡量個人績效目標或目標難度 did not measure personal performance goals or goal difficulty
“盡力而為”
當人們被要求盡力而為時，他們就沒有這樣做。這是因為“盡力而為”目標沒有外部參照 when people are asked to do their best, they do not do so.
This is because do-your-best goals have no external referent
還比較了學習目標與績效目標以及近端目標與遠端目標的影響 compared the effects of learning versus performance goals and proximal versus distal goals.
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Expectancy
期望值
任務複雜性的調節作用
the moderating effects of task complexity.
自我效能感（特定任務的信心）
當目標是自我設定的時候，自我效能感高的人比那些自我效能感低的人設定的目標更高。When goals are self-set, people with high self-efficacy set higher goals than do people with lower self-efficacy.
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Goal Mechanisms
目標的機制
目標通過四種機制影響績效 Goals affect performance through four mechanisms.
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持久性
persistence
當允許參與者控制他們在一項任務上花費的時間時，困難的目標會延長工作量 When participants are allowed to control the time they spend on a task, hard goals prolong effort
嚴格的期限導致更快的工作節奏 Tight deadlines lead to a more rapid work pace than loose deadlines
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激勵作用
energizing function
高目標比低目標導致更大的努力 . High goals lead to greater effort than low goals.
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指導作用
directive function
他們將注意力和精力轉向與目標相關的活動，而不是與目標無關的活動。 they direct attention and effort toward goal-relevant activities and away from goal-irrelevant activities.
This effect occurs both cognitively and behaviorally.
具有特定學習目標的學生比與目標無關的文章更關注和學習與目標相關的散文。 people who were given feedback about multiple aspects of their performance on an automobile-driving task improved their performance on the dimensions for which they had goals but not on other dimensions.
在汽車駕駛任務中獲得表現方面多個方面反饋的人，可以在他們有目標的維度上改善他們的表現，而在其他方面則沒有。 people who were given feedback about multiple aspects of their performance on an automobile-driving task improved their performance on the dimensions for which they had goals but not on other dimensions.
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目標通過引起與任務相關的知識和策略的喚醒，發現和/或使用，間接影響行動 goals affect action indirectly by leading to the arousal, discovery, and/or use of task-relevant knowledge and strategies
目標設定 研究摘要
summary of goal-setting research:
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面對任務目標時，人們會自動使用與目標達成有關的已經掌握的知識和技能 When confronted with task goals, people automatically use the knowledge and skills they have already acquired that are relevant to goal attainment.
此時，無需選擇其他有意識的計劃來做出努力並堅持到實現目標 use their knowledge of logging without the need for additional conscious planning in their choice to exert effort and persist until the goal is attained
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不是使用自動化技能的問題，那麼人們會從以前在相關環境中使用過的全部技能中汲取資源 If the path to the goal is not a matter of using automatized skills, people draw from a repertoire of skills that they have used previously in related contexts,
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.如果是新任務，他們將進行有計劃的規劃 If the task for which a goal is assigned is new to people, they will engage in deliberate planning
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具有較高自我效能感的人比具有較低自我效能感的人更有可能製定有效的任務策略 People with high self-efficacy are more likely than those with low self-efficacy to develop effective task strategies
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面對一項對他們來說很複雜的任務 時，督促他們盡力而為有時會帶來比設定特定的困難績效目標更好的策略 People with high self-efficacy are more likely than those with low self-efficacy to develop effective task strategies
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當進行了適當策略的培訓時 ，具有特定高性能目標的人性能得以提高 When people are trained in the proper strategies, those given specific high-performance goals are more likely to use those strategies than people given other types of goals; hence, their performance improves
如果一個人使用的策略不合適，那麼效果更差 However, if the strategy used by the person is inappropriate, then a difficult performance-outcome goal leads to worse performance than an easy goal
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Moderators
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目標承諾Goal Commitment
a. Importance.
使目標達成對人們很重要的因素 factors that make goal attainment important to people
做出公開承諾可以增強承諾 Making a public commitment to the goal enhances commitment
領導者交流鼓舞人心的願景並表現出支持態度 enhanced by leaders communicating an inspiring vision and behaving supportively.
分配目標的替代方法是允許下屬參與設定目標 An alternative to assigning goals is to allow subordinates to participate in setting them.
如果沒有明確地分配目標（例如，“執行此任務...”），則其結果將明顯低於參與性設定目標的績效 if the goal is assigned tersely (e.g., “Do this . . . ”) without explanation, it leads to performance that is significantly lower than for a participatively set goal
與其他人一起參與製定任務策略的人的表現要好得多，並且自我效能感要比未參與製定該策略的人好得多。 people who participated with others in formulating task strategies performed significantly better and had higher self-efficacy than those who did not participate in formulating strategies.
Self-efficacy.
相信自己可以實現目標（自我效能）belief that they can attain the goal (self-efficacy)
通過確保進行適當的培訓以增加掌握成功經驗的掌握力 by ensuring adequate training to increase mastery that provides success experiences,
通過角色建模 或尋找該人可以識別的模型 by role modeling or finding models with whom the person can identify,
通過有說服力的溝通表達對個人可以實現目標的信心 through persuasive communication that expresses confidence that the person can attain the goal
介紹
當人們致力於自己的目標時，目標與績效的關係最牢固 The goal–performance relationship is strongest when people are committed to their goals.
當目標難以實現時，承諾是最重要和最相關的 Commitment is most important and relevant when goals are difficult (
目標承諾問卷 goal commitment questionnaires
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回饋Feedback
為了使目標有效，人們需要摘要反饋，以揭示與目標相關的進度 For goals to be effective, people need summary feedback that reveals progress in relation to their goals.
當人們發現自己低於目標時，他們通常會加大努力 或嘗試新的策略 When people find they are below target, they normally increase their effort or try a new strategy.
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任務複雜度 Task Complexity
隨著任務複雜性的提高以及更高水平的技能和策略尚未實現自動化，目標效果取決於發現適當任務策略的能力 As the complexity of the task increases and higher level skills and strategies have yet to become automatized, goal effects are dependent on the ability to discover appropriate task strategies.
當設定了特定的困難學習目標而不是績效目標時，高目標導致在一項複雜任務上的績效明顯高於敦促人們盡力而為的總目標。when a specific difficult learning goal rather than a performance goal was set, consistent with goal-setting theory, high goals led to significantly higher performance on a complex task than did the general goal of urging people do their best.
有助於執行新的複雜任務的另一個因素是使用近端目標，動態任務的性能錯誤通常是由於遠端目標分解為近端目標的不足 on new, complex tasks is the use of proximal goals.
performance errors on a dynamic task are often due to deficient decomposition of a distal goal into proximal goals.
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Personal Goals
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應用
學生
限制
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目標衝突Goal Conflict
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學習和績效目標Learning and Performance Goals
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目標與風險Goals and Risk
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個性Personality
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目標和潛意識動機Goals and Subconscious Motivation
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Satisfaction
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結論
