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Chapter 8 (Cellular Respiration (Glycolysis (Sugar splitting, breaks…

- - - - oxidation: loss of electrons
      - reduction: addition of electrons (reduction of charge)
    - - carries electrons
  - - - 3 NAD+ reduced to NADH
      - 1 ATP produced
      - one FADH2 produced
      - 2 CO2 removed as waste
  - - - these proteins pump H+ into the inner membrane space, creating a higher concentration gradient
    - - ATP Synthase acts like a water wheel, using the energy of diffusion to phosphorylate ADP into ATP
  - - - yeast fermentation in alcoholic beverages
      - pyruvate converted to acetaldehyde
      - acetaldehyde reduced by NADH to ethanol
    - - pyruvate reduced directly by NADH to lactic acid
      - human muscle cells do this during strenuous exercise
  - - - Pyruvate loses 1 carbon as carbon dioxide
      - one NAD+ reduced to NADH
      - Acetyl CoA produced
- - - - catabolic
        
        breaking things down
        
        entropy
        
        -ΔG
        
        exergonic
        
        Spontaneous
      - anabolic
        
        building things
        
        enthalpy
        
        +ΔG
        
        endergonic
        
        Non-spontaneous
  - - - Energy which can do work
- - - - shivering - muscle contractions
    - - chemical
        
        phosphorylation of reactants (less stable, more reactive)
        
        coupled reaction
        enzyme + ATP hydrolysis leads to more free energy
      - transport
        
        phosphorylates transport proteins
        
        changes protein shape
        
        changes protein affinity
        
        phosphate group binds to protein
      - mechanical
        
        ATP binds non-covalently to motor protein
        
        ATP then hydrolyzed
        
        motor protein is moved along cytoskeleton
  - - - release of energy
      - catabolic breakdown of covalent bond
      - exergonic
    - - i.e. cellular respiration
      - provides energy to reattach a phosphate group
    - - Endergonic
      - Storing of energy
      - Anabolic
- - - - bonds of reactants have become very weak and can break
    - - process of a catalyst lowering activation energy
  - - - the combination of enzyme and substrate
      - protein has changed shape by weak (hydrogen) bonds with substrate
  - - - induced fit
    - - active site converts substrate to product
  - - - too high a temperature can break hydrogen bonds (denature)
      - somewhat higher temperatures can enhance substrate collision with active site
    - - like temp, there is an optimal pH range for enzymes
      - range often depends on function
        i.e. pepsin in stomach have a low pH range
    - - non protein helper
      - may be tightly or loosely bound
      - inorganic
        
        zinc, magnesium, iron, etc.
      - coenzyme
        
        organic cofactor
    - - competitive
        
        reduce enzyme productivity
        
        block active sites
      - non-competitive
        
        also reduces enzyme productivity
        
        attaches to enzyme but does not directly block active site
        
        changes shape of enzyme which makes active site less effective or completely ineffective
  - - - helping or hindering active sites
        
        Inhibition
        
        stabilizes inactive enzyme form
        
        Activation
        
        stabilizes enzyme active site form
        
        cooperativity
        
        substrate causing allosteric activation
    - - allosteric inhibition of an enzyme by a product of that enzyme
      - slows down synthesis of itself
    - - compartmentalization
        
        enzymes are made and work where they're needed
        
        enzymes often work in teams along a metabolic pathway
      - some enzymes become substrates of other enzymes
- - - - water, CO2 and sunlight create sugar
    - - organelle containing thylakoids
        
        this is where photosynthesis occurs
      - stoma allows O2, CO2, and H2O in and out
      - Stroma - fluid inside chloroplast
      - Chlorophyll - green pigment - resides in thylakoid membrane
    - - photosynthesis splits water into O2
  - - - chlorophyll-a
        
        main light capturing pigment
      - chlorophyll-b
        
        accessory pigment
      - green color indicates absorption spectrum
    - - the photosystems split H2O into O2 and H+
      - electrons are passed through the chain
      - The chain pumps H+ into the thylakoid
      - NADPH is produced by NADP+ Reductase
    - - ATP is produced for the Calvin cycle
  - - - CO2 attached to RuBP by Rubisco
      - produces unstable 6 carbon molecule-
        -splits into 2, 3-phosphoglycerates
    - - 3-phosphoglycerate attaches to a phosphate group from ATP, making 3-biphosphoglycerate
      - 3-biphosphoglycerate reduced by NADPH to G3P
      - two G3Ps combined is 1 glucose
    - - extra G3P is rearranged back into RuBP
    - - 3 CO2 in
        
        1 Glucose out
      - 9 ATP spent
      - 6 NADPH spent
  - - - stomata close in hot, dry conditions, depriving plant of CO2
      - photorespiration
        
        O2 added to calvin cycle produces CO2
        however not enough to make up for losses
        
        this process is very energy costly
    - - PEP carboxylase fixes CO2 better than Rubisco
      - well adapted to hot, dry climates
      - A four carbon molecule carries CO2 to the calvin cycle in a separate cell called bundle-sheath cell
      - more efficient use of CO2 and water for photosynthesis
    - - water-storing plants
        
        succulents, cacti, agave, pineapple
      - open their stomata during the night and close them during the day
      - at night the CO2 which comes in is combined into various organic acids
      - during the day the CO2 stored in the acids is released to run photosynthesis powered by sunlight
- - - - Energy of motion
      - Falling objects (for example)
      - Energy being used
      - catabolic
    - - Stored energy
      - Water behind a dam
      - Covalent bonds
      - anabolic
    - - potential energy available for release in a chemical reaction
      - cellular respiration
      - catabolic
    - - heat
        
        totality of molecular motion (brownian)
      - kinetic energy of brownian movement
  - - - organisms
      - energy and matter can be transferred to and from surroundings
    - - coffee in a thermos
      - unable to interact with surroundings outside system
      - energy and matter both contained in system
  - - - conservation of energy
      - Energy is neither created nor destroyed
      - all energy on earth is solar
        
        coal is fossilized plant matter
        
        wind and solar come directly from the sun
        
        uranium came from a supernova (thankfully not from our sun)
    - - All uses of energy increase disorder
      - Entropy increases without end
      - "Heat death" of universe
        
        entropy will eventually rule the universe
        
        opposite of big bang (highly ordered universe)
      - order and disorder
        
        entropy
        
        disorder
        
        enthalpy
        
        order
- - - - Change in energy of a system
      - change in Free Energy
      - aka change in Available Energy
    - - Change in system enthalpy
      - change in system order
      - change in total energy in biological systems
    - - Temperature of system in Kelvin
        (no negative values in K scale)
    - - change in system entropy
      - change in system disorder