Metabolism Chapter 8,9, and 10

ATP ( Adenosine Tri Phosphate). Energy

Gibbs Free Energy

ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

This is an equation for understanding the change in total energy or available energy.

Δ is the symbol for a delta. this is much easier to look at as change.

In words, the equation is available energy= the change in total energy - (temperature x disorder).

ΔG < 0 Spontaneou reaction = Endergonic ΔG > 0 non-spontaneous = Exergonic ΔG= 0 equilibrium no reaction

ΔG or Available energy: the total chemical reaction happening inside of an organism.

ΔH or total energy (enthalpy): This can be can also be looked at as change in potential energy. As a ball falls down a slide, the potential energy changed.

ΔS or disorder (entropy): this is the measure for randomness or disorder.

Temperature: average movement of molecules, in K (Kelvin)

The Law of Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics: study of the movement of energy

Kelvin is C +273

ATP is made of a sugar (ribose) with a nitrogenous base (adenine and 3 phospate).

ATP powers cellular work by coupling exergonic reactions to endergonic reactions. A cell has 3 main kinds of work.

Chemical Work: The pushing of endergonic reactions that would not occur spontaneoussly.

Transport work: the pumping of substances across membranes against the direction of spontaneous movement.

Mechanical Work: Contracting of muscles or movement of chromosomes in cellular reproduction.

The first law of thermodynamics: states that energy can not be created or destroyed but can be transferred transformed.

The second law of thermodynamics: states that every energy transfer or trasformation increases the entropy of the universe. .

Also known as the law of conservation of energy.

Bioenergetics: the study of how energy flows through living organisms

Metabolism: The totality of an organisms chemical reactions. This occurs due to order.

Metabolic Pathways: a specific molecule which is then altered in a series of defined steps, resulting in a specific product.

Catabolic pathways: these are the breakdown pathways. In cellular respiration, sugar glucose and other organic fuels are broken down into carbon dioxide and water in the presence of oxygen

Anabolic pathways: pathways that require energy to create. Synthesis of amino acids, photosynthesis or anabolic steroids. They require energy to work.

Energy: Is the capacity to cause change. Or the ability to rearrange a collection of matter.

Kinetic Energy: The relative movement of objects.

Potential energy: This is energy that is not kinetic or stored energy. It is energy that matter possesses because of its location or structure.

Thermal energy is kinetic energy in reference to the random movement of atoms or molecules

Chemical energy: the energy biologists refer to as the energy available for release in a chemical reaction.

Photosynthesis: a plant takes light in and converts the light energy into chemical energy.

Buildings breaking down or the breaking down of energy into heat.

Entropy: The study of randomness

Exergonic Reaction: a reaction that releases free energy or available energy

Endergonic Reaction: A reaction that takes in free energy or Available energy

Enzymes are macromolecule that acts as a catalyst

ATP Hydrolysis is breaking down ATP into ADP with the help of H2O

Allows for direct drive of chemical reactions that, alone are endergonic.

Phosphorylated intermediate: The recipient molecule with the phosphate group covalently bonded .

Phosphorylation: the transfer of a phosphate group to another molecule like the reactant.

Catalyst is something that illicits a reaction.

Activation energy: The energy required to break the bonds of the reactant molecules

Substrate: the reactant an enzyme acts upon

End in ase. For example sucrASE

Enzyme-Substrate complex: When the enzyme binds to itts substrate.

Induced fit: it is the tightening of the binding, after initial contact

Non Competitive Inhibitors: Impede enzymatic reactions by attaching to a different part of the enzyme, This causes the active site to be less effective due to the shape change.

Competitive inhibitors: mimics that reduce productivity of enzymes by blocking substrates from entering into active sites

Allosteric Regulation: a proteins function at one site is affected by the binding of a regulatory molecule to a separate site.:

Cooperativity: a substrate molecule binding to the active site in a multisubunit enzyme, triggers a shape change in all the subunits. Increasing catalytic activity.

Feedback inhibition: An ATP generating pathway by ATP itself.

Chapter 9 Cellular Respiration

Maximum yield in perfect scenario is 38 ATP

The Steps of Cellular Respiration

Photosynthesis: Converting the energy from the sun into a usable form of energy (sugar).

6CO2 + 6H20 + (energy) → C6H12O6 + 6O2

This is a process carried out by photo autotrophs, or self feeders, within the chloroplasts. ( i.e Plants, Cyanobacteria, Multicellular Algae, Unicellular Eukaryotes, and Purple Sulfur Bacteria).

Dark Reactions/ Calvin Cycle (In Stroma, two cycles for 1 completion)

Light Reactions at PhotoSystems II (in Thylakoid)

Light Reactions of PhotoSystems I (in Thylakoid)

Stomata/ Stoma: these are the pores found on the leaf that allows for carbon dioxide to enter and oxygen to lexit

Mesophyll: This is the tissue found in the interior of a leaf. This is the site were chloroplasts are found. A typical mesophyll cell contains about 30- 40 chloroplasts.

Stroma: this is the site of photosynthesis and the location of the thylakoids. Stacked thylakoid are galled grana/ granum. chlorophyll : the pigment of plants, is located in the thylakoid membrane.

  1. Light and H2O are taken in and H2O is broken down into e- (Charged energy carrier) H+ ions ( un energized energy carrier) and O2 ( un ergized energy carrier). Oxygen is a waste product of this catabolic process.
  1. e- are passed on from Photosystem II into the cytochrome complex
  1. Cytochrome Complex pumps in H+ ions, from stoma, into thylakoid. e- get passed on to other proteins such as Photo System I.

Electrons (charged energy carriers) are stripped from water, using light energy . O2 is excreted as waste.

Hydrogen ions (un-charged energy carriers) are pumped into thylakoid, against the concentration gradient. This is catabolic and endergonic.

Electrons (charged), H+ (uncharged) and NADP+ (uncharged) go to NADP+ reductionase. NADPH is created (Charged).

H+ escape through ATP Synthase, turning ADP into ATP. This is a catabolic and endergonic reaction.

3CO2 and 3RuBP are sent through rubisco in order to make 6PGA. (Exergonic reaction)

ATP and NADPH combine to form G3P from here the G3P does 1 of 2 things

G3P can re-enter the cycle of ATP and Rubisco

Or the G3P will split off to meet up with another G3P and form 2G3P or Glucose.

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Chlorophyll is a pigment that absorbs different light wavelengths and reflects green

Light has 4 different reactions when it strikes an object

Refraction: this occurs when the wavelength is bending going through the object

Transmission: When electromagnetic energy moves through an object

Reflection: when light is bouncing off of the object

Absorption: When electromagnetic energy is captured and converted to internal energy.

Carbon Fixation is the transformation of inorganic CO2 into an organic substance.

Photorespiration is when the plants attempt to use O2 in substitution of CO2, due to CO2 being sparce. This is bad for plants

C4 Plants: These are desert plants. They store carbon in the absence of water. pepcarboxylase helps make oxaloacetic acid.

CAM Plants: they store the organic acids they make, at night, until they receive light.

C3 Plants: These are a great majority of plants. These are plants whose first product is PGA using rubisco

Photophosphorylation: the light reaction that generates ATP, using chemiosmosis to power the addition of a phospate group.

Electromagnetic Spectrum: the entire range of radiation

WavelengthThe distance between electromagnetic crests. also known as the frequency of light.

Visible light: The narrow band from about 380nm - 750 nm.

Glycolysis (Cytoplasm)

The Intermediate Step (mitochondria)

2 ATP break glucose into 2 pyruvic acid molecules

glucose has 6 carbons so by breaking them we get 3 carbons

Covalent bonds are catobolically broken down.

This converts 4 ADP into 4 ATP; 2 NAD+ into 2 NADH ( endergonic)

This gives us a net gain of 2 ATP

The Reactants are 1 Glucose and 2 ATP and the Products are 2 pyruvates, 4 ATP, and 2 NADH

Krebs Cycle/ Cittric Acid Cycle (mitochondrial matrix)

2 Pyruvates each and 3 carbons each

1 Carbon released for each Puruvate

2 Carbons Remain for each Acetyl COA from the catabolic process

NAD+ (x2) goes threough an endergonic process to turn into NADH (x2)

Each Carbon binds to oxygen and electrons

CO2 is released by organism when exhaling

Acetyl COA is the product of the Anabolic process

The Electron Transport Train and Oxydative Phosporylation (Cristae of Mitochondria)

Acetyl COA binds to Oxaloacetic Acidto make Citric Acid in an endergonic process

Citric acid is broken down in to 2 CO2 and a 4 carbon Oxoalocetic acid to restart at step 1 (exergonic)

2 cycles produces; 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2. CO2 is lost in respiration.

ATP Synthase converts ADP into ATP (anabolic and endergonic) Powered by H+ movement through the intermembrane of the mitochondria.

The electrons helps NADH, phosphorylate 3 ADP to ATP, and 1 FADH2 phosphorylate 2 ATP.

The Reactants 2 Pyruvates and products are 2 acetyl COA, 2 CO2, @ NADH

Reactants are 10 NADH 2 FADH and they produce 34 ATP

Facultative Anaerobes are organisms that can use either fermentation or anaerobic respiration respiration to survive.

Obligate Anaerobes are organisms that can only do either fermentation or anaerobic respiration but never both

Lactic Acid Fermentation: pyruvate reduced by NADH to form lactate as the end product, regenerating NAD+, with no release of CO2

Alcohol Fermentation: Pyruvate is converted into ethanol. CO2 is released.

C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6 O 2 --> 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O + ATP